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36
Working memory: looking back and looking forward.
- Nature Rev. Neurosci.
, 2003
"... The theoretical concept of working memory assumes that a limited capacity system, which temporarily maintains and stores information, supports human thought processes by providing an interface between perception, long-term memory and action The term 'working memory' seems to have been in ..."
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Cited by 225 (0 self)
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The theoretical concept of working memory assumes that a limited capacity system, which temporarily maintains and stores information, supports human thought processes by providing an interface between perception, long-term memory and action The term 'working memory' seems to have been invented by Miller, Galanter and Pribram 9 , and was adopted by Baddeley and Hitch 10 to emphasize the differences between their three-component model and earlier unitary models of short-term memory (STM). These differences include its multi-component character, its emphasis on combined processing and storage, and the stress on its functional importance as a system that facilitates a range of cognitive activities, such as reasoning, learning and comprehension. This approach resulted in the development of a set of experimental tasks that could be used to analyse different activities and subject populations 1 . Because the available empirical evidence provided few constraints, the model was initially loosely specified: for example, it had no mechanism for storing serial order. However, it was simple and robust, and had the potential to develop and become much richer and more clearly specified. The Baddeley and Hitch model continues to flourish, and will be used as a basis for this review. The article will, however, extend beyond WORKING MEMORY: LOOKING BACK AND LOOKING FORWARD Alan Baddeley The concept of working memory proposes that a dedicated system maintains and stores information in the short term, and that this system underlies human thought processes. Current views of working memory involve a central executive and two storage systems: the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad. Although this basic model was first proposed 30 years ago, it has continued to develop and to stimulate research and debate. The model and the most recent results are reviewed in this article.
Working memory impairments in children with specific arithmetic learning difficulties
- Journal of Experimental Child Psychology
, 1999
"... Working memory impairments in children with difficulties in arithmetic have previ-ously been investigated using questionable selection techniques and control groups, leading to problems concluding where deficits may occur. The present study attempted to overcome these criticisms by assessing 9-year- ..."
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Cited by 101 (1 self)
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Working memory impairments in children with difficulties in arithmetic have previ-ously been investigated using questionable selection techniques and control groups, leading to problems concluding where deficits may occur. The present study attempted to overcome these criticisms by assessing 9-year-old children with difficulties specific to arithmetic, as indicated by normal reading, and comparing them with both age-matched and ability-matched controls. A battery of 10 tasks was used to assess different aspects of working memory, including subtypes of executive function. Relative to age-matched controls, children with poor arithmetic had normal phonological working memory but were impaired on spatial working memory and some aspects of executive processing. Compared to ability-matched controls, they were impaired only on one task designed to assess executive processes for holding and manipulating information in long-term mem-ory. These deficits in executive and spatial aspects of working memory seem likely to be important factors in poor arithmetical attainment. © 1999 Academic Press Key Words: working memory; executive processes; arithmetic; children; learning difficulties. There are many reasons children may fail to learn arithmetic. Examples include anxiety about mathematics, lack of experience and poor motivation (Ashcraft & Faust, 1994; Levine, 1987), reading difficulties (Muth, 1984; Rich-man, 1983), and neuropsychological damage (McCloskey, Harley, & Sokol, 1991). A growing body of evidence suggests that arithmetical learning difficul-
The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age
- Developmental Psychology
, 2004
"... The structure of working memory and its development across the childhood years were investigated in children 4–15 years of age. The children were given multiple assessments of each component of the A. D. Baddeley and G. Hitch (1974) working memory model. Broadly similar linear functions characterize ..."
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Cited by 81 (3 self)
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The structure of working memory and its development across the childhood years were investigated in children 4–15 years of age. The children were given multiple assessments of each component of the A. D. Baddeley and G. Hitch (1974) working memory model. Broadly similar linear functions characterized performance on all measures as a function of age. From 6 years onward, a model consisting of 3 distinct but correlated factors corresponding to the working memory model provided a good fit to the data. The results indicate that the basic modular structure of working memory is present from 6 years of age and possibly earlier, with each component undergoing sizable expansion in functional capacity throughout the early and middle school years to adolescence. In adults, short-term memory appears to be served by a number of interacting and highly specialized temporary memory systems. The broadest and most influential account of short-term memory is provided by the working memory model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974). At the heart of the model lies the central executive, a system responsible for a range of regulatory functions including attention, the control of action, and problem solving (Baddeley, 1996). A
Children’s Arithmetical Difficulties: Contributions from Processing Speed, Item Identification, and Short-Term Memory
, 1997
"... Children’s arithmetical difficulties are often explained in terms of a short-term memory deficit. However, the underlying cause of this memory deficit is unclear, with some researchers suggesting a slow articulation rate and hence increased decay of information during recall, while others offer an e ..."
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Cited by 65 (0 self)
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Children’s arithmetical difficulties are often explained in terms of a short-term memory deficit. However, the underlying cause of this memory deficit is unclear, with some researchers suggesting a slow articulation rate and hence increased decay of information during recall, while others offer an explanation in terms of slow speed of item identification, indicating difficulty in retrieving information stored in longterm memory. General processing speed is also related to measures of short-term memory but has rarely been assessed in studies of children’s arithmetic. Measures of short-term memory, processing speed, sequencing ability, and retrieval of information from long-term memory were therefore given to 7-year-old children. When reading ability was controlled for, arithmetic ability was best predicted by processing speed, with short-term memory accounting for no further unique variance. It was concluded that children with arithmetic difficulties have problems specifically in automating basic arithmetic facts which may stem from a general speed-of-processing deficit.
Event-based prospective memory and executive control of working memory
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
, 1998
"... In 5 experiments, the character of concurrent cognitive processing was manipulated during an event-based prospective memory task. High- and low-load conditions that differed only in the difficulty of the concurrent task were tested in each experiment. In Experiments 1 and 2, attention-demanding task ..."
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Cited by 64 (15 self)
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In 5 experiments, the character of concurrent cognitive processing was manipulated during an event-based prospective memory task. High- and low-load conditions that differed only in the difficulty of the concurrent task were tested in each experiment. In Experiments 1 and 2, attention-demanding tasks from the literature on executive control produced decrements in prospective memory. In Experiment 3, attention was divided by different loads of articulatory suppression that did not ultimately lead to decrements in prospective memory. A high-load manipulation of a visuospatial task requiring performance monitoring resulted in worse prospective memory in Experiment 4, whereas in Experiment 5 a visuospatial task with little monitoring did not. Results are discussed in terms of executive functions, such as planning and monitoring, that appear to be critical to successful event-based prospective memory. Successfully completing an intended action in the future depends on a type of remembering that has been labeled prospective memory. Thus, successful prospective memory requires remembering to remember. As a cognitive con-struct, however, prospective memory is less monolithic than
The nature of the working memory in linguistic, arithmetic . . .
- JOURNAL OF MEMORY AND LANGUAGE
, 2007
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Synchronizing Visual and Language Processing: An Effect of Object Name Length on Eye Movements
- Psychological Science
, 2000
"... Are visual and verbal processing systems functionally independent ? Two experiments (one using line drawings of common objects, the other using faces) explored the relationship between the number of syllables in an object's name (one or three) and the visual inspection of that object. The tasks ..."
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Are visual and verbal processing systems functionally independent ? Two experiments (one using line drawings of common objects, the other using faces) explored the relationship between the number of syllables in an object's name (one or three) and the visual inspection of that object. The tasks were short-term recognition and visual search. Results indicated more fixations and longer gaze durations on objects having three-syllable names when the task encouraged a verbal encoding of the objects (i.e., recognition). No effects of syllable length on eye movements were found when implicit naming demands were minimal (i.e., visual search). These findings suggest that implicitly naming a pictorial object constrains the oculomotor inspection of that object, and that the visual and verbal encoding of an object are synchronized so that the faster process must wait for the slower to be completed before gaze shifts to another object. Both findings imply a tight coupling between visual and linguistic processing, and highlight the utility of an oculomotor methodology to understand this coupling.
Insensitivity of visual short-term memory to irrelevant visual information
- THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
, 2002
"... Several authors have hypothesized that visuo-spatial working memory is functionally analogous to verbal working memory. Irrelevant background speech impairs verbal short-term memory. We investigated whether irrelevant visual information has an analogous effect on visual short-term memory, using a dy ..."
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Cited by 12 (1 self)
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Several authors have hypothesized that visuo-spatial working memory is functionally analogous to verbal working memory. Irrelevant background speech impairs verbal short-term memory. We investigated whether irrelevant visual information has an analogous effect on visual short-term memory, using a dynamic visual noise (DVN) technique known to disrupt visual imagery (Quinn & McConnell, 1996b). Experiment 1 replicated the effect of DVN on pegword imagery. Experiments 2 and 3 showed no effect of DVN on recall of static matrix patterns, despite a significant effect of a concurrent spatial tapping task. Experiment 4 showed no effect of DVN on encoding or maintenance of arrays of matrix patterns, despite testing memory by a recognition procedure to encourage visual rather than spatial processing. Serial position curves showed a oneitem recency effect typical of visual short-term memory. Experiment 5 showed no effect of DVN on short-term recognition of Chinese characters, despite effects of visual similarity and a concurrent colour memory task that confirmed visual processing of the characters. We conclude that irrelevant visual noise does not impair visual short-term memory. Visual working memory may not be functionally analogous to verbal working memory, and different cognitive processes may underlie visual short-term memory and visual imagery.
Complexity Effects in Visuo-spatial Working Memory: Implications for the Role of Long-term Memory
- Memory
, 2001
"... This is the authors ’ version of an article published in Memory. The original publication is available by subscription at: ..."
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This is the authors ’ version of an article published in Memory. The original publication is available by subscription at:
