An algorithm that transforms programs to eliminate intermediate trees is presented. The algorithm applies to any term containing only functions with definitions in a given syntactic form, and is suitable for incorporation in an optimising compiler. Intermediate lists---and, more generally, intermediate trees---are both the basis and the bane of a certain style of programming in functional languages. For example, to compute the sum of the squares of the numbers from 1 to n, one could write the following program: sum (map square (upto 1 n)) (1) A key feature of this style is the use of functions (upto, map, sum) to encapsulate common patterns of computation ("consider the numbers from 1 to n ", "apply a function to each element", "sum a collection of elements"). Intermediate lists are the basis of this style---they are the glue that holds the functions together. In this case, the list [1; 2; : : : ; n] connects upto to map, and the list [1; 4; : : : ; n 2 ] connects map to sum. B...

This paper presents type classes, a new approach to ad-hoc polymorphism. Type classes permit overloading of arithmetic operators such as multiplication, and generalise the "eqtype variables" of Standard ML. Type classes extend the Hindley/Milner polymorphic type system, and provide a new approach to issues that arise in object-oriented programming, bounded type quantification, and abstract data types. This paper provides an informal introduction to type classes, and defines them formally by means of type inference rules. 1 Introduction Strachey chose the adjectives ad-hoc and parametric to distinguish two varieties of polymorphism [Str67]. Ad-hoc polymorphism occurs when a function is defined over several different types, acting in a different way for each type. A typical example is overloaded multiplication: the same symbol may be used to denote multiplication of integers (as in 3*3) and multiplication of floating point values (as in 3.14*3.14). Parametric polymorphism occurs wh...

From the type of a polymorphic function we can derive a theorem that it satisfies. Every function of the same type satisfies the same theorem. This provides a free source of useful theorems, courtesy of Reynolds' abstraction theorem for the polymorphic lambda calculus.

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The linear logic of J.-Y. Girard suggests a new type system for functional languages, one which supports operations that "change the world". Values belonging to a linear type must be used exactly once: like the world, they cannot be duplicated or destroyed. Such values require no reference counting or garbage collection, and safely admit destructive array update. Linear types extend Schmidt's notion of single threading; provide an alternative to Hudak and Bloss' update analysis; and offer a practical complement to Lafont and Holmström's elegant linear languages.

This paper de nes a set of type inference rules for resolving overloading introduced by type classes. Programs including type classes are transformed into ones which may be typed by the Hindley-Milner inference rules. In contrast to other work on type classes, the rules presented here relate directly to user programs. An innovative aspect of this work is the use of second-order lambda calculus to record type information in the program. 1.

In this paper the intersection type discipline as defined in [Barendregt et al. ’83] is studied. We will present two different and independent complete restrictions of the intersection type discipline. The first restricted system, the strict type assignment system, is presented in section two. Its major feature is the absence of the derivation rule (≤) and it is based on a set of strict types. We will show that these together give rise to a strict filter lambda model that is essentially different from the one presented in [Barendregt et al. ’83]. We will show that the strict type assignment system is the nucleus of the full system, i.e. for every derivation in the intersection type discipline there is a derivation in which (≤) is used only at the very end. Finally we will prove that strict type assignment is complete for inference semantics. The second restricted system is presented in section three. Its major feature is the absence of the type ω. We will show that this system gives rise to a filter λI-model and that type assignment without ω is complete for the λI-calculus. Finally we will prove that a lambda term is typeable in this system if and only if it is strongly normalizable.

Past attempts to apply Girard's linear logic have either had a clear relation to the theory (Lafont, Holmstrom, Abramsky) or a clear practical value (Guzm'an and Hudak, Wadler), but not both. This paper defines a sequence of languages based on linear logic that span the gap between theory and practice. Type reconstruction in a linear type system can derive information about sharing. An approach to linear type reconstruction based on use types is presented. Applications to the array update problem are considered.

A number of useful optimisations are enabled if we can determine when a value is accessed at most once. We extend the Hindley-Milner type system with uses, yielding a typeinference based program analysis which determines when values are accessed at most once. Our analysis can handle higher-order functions and data structures, and admits principal types for terms. Unlike previous analyses, we prove our analysis sound with respect to call-by-need reduction. Call-by-name reduction does not provide an accurate model of how often a value is used during lazy evaluation, since it duplicates work which would actually be shared in a real implementation. Our type system can easily be modified to analyse usage in a call-by-value language. 1 Introduction This paper describes a method for determining when a value is used at most once. Our method is based on a simple modification of the Hindley-Milner type system. Each type is labelled to indicate whether the corresponding value is used at most onc...

This paper gives an overview of intersection type assignment for the Lambda Calculus, as well as compare in detail variants that have been defined in the past. It presents the essential intersection type assignment system, that will prove to be as powerful as the well-known BCD-system. It is essential in the following sense: it is an almost syntax directed system that satisfies all major properties of the BCDsystem, and the types used are the representatives of equivalence classes of types in the BCD-system. The set of typeable terms can be characterized in the same way, the system is complete with respect to the simple type semantics, and it has the principal type property.