There is growing evidence that the brain regions involved in encoding an episode are partially reactivated when that episode is later remembered. That is, the process of remembering an episode involves literally returning to the brain state that was present during that episode. This article reviews studies of episodic and associative memory that provide support for the assertion that encoding regions are reactivated during subsequent retrieval. In the first section, studies are reviewed in which neutral stimuli were associated with different modalities of sensory stimuli or different valences of emotional stimuli. When the neutral stimuli were later used as retrieval cues, relevant sensory and emotion processing regions were reactivated. In the second section, studies are reviewed in which participants used different strategies for encoding stimuli. When the stimuli were later retrieved, regions associated with the different encoding strategies were reactivated. Together, these studies demonstrate not only that the encoding experience determines which regions are activated during subsequent retrieval but also that the same regions are activated during encoding and retrieval. In the final section, relevant questions are posed and discussed regarding the reactivation of encoding regions during retrieval.

this memory retrieval to happen, however, do not include exact records of those past events. Instead, episodic remembering is a reconstructive process, whereby one must make use of stored information that is often limited and incomplete. Because of this reconstructive nature of retrieval, memories are subject to distortion (Bartlett 1932; Schacter 1995; Schacter et al 1998). The study of memory distortion and its basis in the brain, as reviewed below, can provide many insights into this process of reconstruction, thus helping to clarify the inner workings of memory in general, both when it works well and when it fails

Lexical access from spectrum? Phonetic properties of proper names and common nouns in German and Mandarin Chinese State of the art of phonetic language aptitude linking phonetic as well as phonological models to empirical neuroimaging (neurolinguistic) research Phonetic convergence as a paradigm of showing phonetic talent in foreign language acquisition. Institute for Natural Language Processing, Repeated masked semantic priming with new results: ERPs of a negative semantic priming effect. Space, time, and the use of language: An

Human memory is not a literal reproduction of the past, but instead relies on constructive processes that are sometimes prone to error and distortion. Understanding of constructive memory has accelerated during recent years as a