In press, JPSP. This is NOT a final draft; numerical results will be updated prior to publication This draft should not be quoted without permission. In addition to update of numerical results, minor revisions of text are likely

Schwartz, 1998) to measure self-esteem by assessing automatic associations of self with positive or negatlve valence. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that two IAT measures defined a factor that was distinct from, but weakly correlated with, a factor defined by standard explicit (self-report) measures of self-esteem. Experiment 2 tested known-groups validity of two IAT gender self-concept measures. Compared with well-established explicit measures, the IAT measures revealed triple the difference in measured masculinity-femininity between men and women. Again, CFA revealed construct divergence between implicit and explicit measures. Experiment 3 assessed the self-esteem IAT's validity in predicting cognitive reactions to success and failure. High implicit self-esteem was associated in the predicted fashion with buffering against adverse effects of failure on two of four measures. This research developed from the assumption that distinct im-plicit and explicit self-esteem constructs require different measure-ment strategies. In particular, the research pursued implications of Greenwald and Banaji's (1995) definition of implicit self-esteem as "the introspectively unidentified (or inaccurately identified) effect of the self-attitude on evaluation of self-associated and

Theoretically, low correlations between implicit and explicit measures can be due to (a) motivational biases in explicit selfreports, (b) lack of introspective access to implicitly assessed representations, (c) factors influencing the retrieval of information from memory, (d) method-related characteristics of the two measures, or (e) complete independence of the underlying constructs. The present study addressed these questions from a meta-analytic perspective, investigating the correlation between the Implicit Association Test (IAT) and explicit self-report measures. Based on a sample of 126 studies, the mean effect size was.24, with approximately half of the variability across correlations attributable to moderator variables. Correlations systematically increased as a function of (a) increasing spontaneity of self-reports and (b) increasing conceptual correspondence between measures. These results suggest that implicit and explicit measures are generally related but that higher order inferences and lack of conceptual correspondence can reduce the influence of automatic associations on explicit self-reports.

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this article should be addressed to Nilanjana Dasgupta, Department of Psychology, New School University, 65 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10003 or to Anthony G Greenwald, Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-1525. Electronic mail may be sent to dasguptn@newschool.edu or to agg @ u.washington.edu

Schwartz, 1998) can be contaminated by associations that do not contribute to one’s evaluation of an attitude object and thus do not become activated when one encounters the object but that are nevertheless available in memory. The authors propose a variant of the IAT that reduces the contamination of these “extrapersonal associations. ” Consistent with the notion that the traditional version of the IAT is affected by society’s negative portrayal of minority groups, the “personalized ” IAT revealed relatively less racial prejudice among Whites in Experiments 1 and 2. In Experiments 3 and 4, the personalized IAT correlated more strongly with explicit measures of attitudes and behavioral intentions than did the traditional IAT. The feasibility of disentangling personal and extrapersonal associations is discussed. Implicit measures have enjoyed widespread use in social psychology in recent years. The Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998) has become a particularly popular implicit lens for viewing such social phenomena as prejudice (e.g., McConnell & Liebold, 2001), self-esteem (e.g., Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), and social identity (e.g., Greenwald,

The Implicit Association Test (IAT; A. G. Greenwald, D. E. McGhee, & J. L. K. Schwartz, 1998) can be used to assess interindividual differences in the strength of associative links between representational structures such as attitude objects and evaluations. Four experiments are reported that explore the extent of method-specific variance in the IAT. The most important findings are that conventionally scored IAT effects contain reliable interindividual differences that are method specific but independent of the measures ' content, and that IAT effects can be obtained in the absence of a preexisting association between the response categories. Several techniques to decrease the impact of method-specific variance are evaluated. The best results were obtained with the D measures recently proposed by A. G. Greenwald, B. A. Nosek, and M. R. Banaji (2003). The Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998) is a simple experimental task used to measure the relative strength of associations between category-attribute pairs. On the basis of the assumption that many psychological phenomena such as attitude and self-concept can be conceptualized in terms of associative links between representational structures (e.g., Greenwald et al., 2002), the IAT has been applied in a variety of research domains such as racial attitudes (Dasgupta, McGhee, Greenwald, & Banaji,

doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.03.004 www.elsevier.com/locate/jesp Influence of stimuli on IAT effects 2 The Implicit Association Test (Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998) is a categorization task intended to measure the strength of associations between concepts. The present research investigated the influence of individual stimuli on IAT effects. Exploring implicit attitudes of East and West Germans, we systematically manipulated relatedness of target stimuli to the attribute dimension and, simultaneously, relatedness of attribute stimuli to the target dimension. Two experiments demonstrate the influence of stimulus associations as one source that drives IAT effects. Depending on the strength and the direction of these crosscategory associations, the result was either stronger IAT effects or a decline of IAT effects. Implications for theoretical models as well as for the interpretation of IAT effects are discussed.

Each time a latency in responding to a stimulus is measured, we owe a debt to F. C. Donders, who in the mid-19th century made the fundamental discovery that the time required to perform a mental computation reveals something fundamental about how the mind works. Donders expressed the idea in the following simple and optimistic statement about the feasibility of measuring the mind: “Will all quantitative treatment of mental processes be out of the question then? By no means! An important factor seemed to be susceptible to measurement: I refer to the time required for simple mental processes ” (Donders, 1868/1969, pp. 413–414). With particular variations of simple stimuli and subjects ’ choices, Donders demonstrated that it is possible to bring order to understanding invisible thought processes by computing the time that elapses between stimulus presentation and response production. A more specific observation he offered lies at the center of our own

The purpose of this study was to examine the usefulness of implicit (automatic) attitudes to explain the weak attitude-behavior relationships often found in consumer behavior research. One research domain that has revealed low attitude-behavior consistencies is environmentally friendly consumer behavior. In order to better understand this discrepancy, we measured not only explicit but also implicit attitudes toward green consumer behavior by means of the Implicit Association Test (IAT). Explicit measures revealed positive attitudes, while the IAT showed more positive attitudes toward the ecological than toward the traditional product (Exp.1) or no differences in these attitudes (Exp.2 and 3). When existing products were involved, implicit attitudes related to behavioral intention, even where the explicit attitude measure did not. 3 IMPLICIT ATTITUDES AND CONSUMER BEHAVIOR Research on consumer behavior and marketing communications has often focused on the measurement of attitudes (De Pelsmacker, Geuens, & Van den Bergh, 2001; Kotler, 1999). Because attitudes have always been perceived as powerful determinants of behavior (Allport, 1935), marketers assume that when someone has a favorable attitude toward a particular product,