Social behavior is ordinarily treated as being under conscious (if not always thoughtful) control. Howmer, considerable evidence now supports the view that social behavior often operates in an implicit or unconscious fashion. The identifying feature of implicit cognition is that past experience influences judgment in a fashion not introspectively known by the actor. The present conclusion-that attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes have important implicit modes of operation-xtends both the construct validity and predictive usefulness of these major theoretical constructs of social psychology. Methodologically, this review calls for inmased use of indirect measures--which are imperative in studies of implicit cognition. The theorized ordinariness of implicit stereotyping is consistent with r ent findings of discrimination by people who explicitly disavow prejudice. The finding that implicit cognitive effects arc often reduced by focusing judges ' attention on their judg-ment task provides a basis for evaluating applications (such as affirmative action) aimed at reducing such unintended discrimination. Long before they became central to other areas of psycholog-ical theory, concepts of cognitive mediation dominated the anal-ysis of social behavior. The constructs on which this article fo-

coordination. This paper uses a variety of data from R & D organizations to describe informal communication and its functions in organizations. It argues that informal communication, generally mediated by physical proximity, is crucial for coordination to occur. Informal communication is frequent in R&D organizations, it aids organizational members in learning about each other and their work, it supports both production work and the social relations that underlie it, and it provides a critical facility that collaborators rely on to start joint work, maintain it, and drive it to conclusion. Without informal communication, many collaborations would undoubtedly not occur and others would break up before becoming successful. In this light we present two telecommunication systems designed to support informal communication through artificial proximity. The VideoWindow system is a wide-screen video teleconferencing system continuously linking public places, and Cruiser is a switched, desk-top video communications system that implements a metaphor of a virtual hallway. Both systems have the potential to support informal communication, but experience with the VideoWindow and analysis of Cruiser suggest that careful attention to implementation detail will determine if they are successful. Informal Communication in Organizations: Form, Function, and Technology Most of the work that people do in organizations requires some degree of active cooperation and communication with others. This is true of routine clerical work, it is equally true of creative work, like scientific research or engineering development. Indeed, in some scientific fields over 65% of publications are jointly authored (Over, 1982), and most research projects, regardless of authorship, require support staffs of cl...

The O.J. Simpson “trial of the century ” in the mid-1990s captured the attention of the American populace more than any other public spectacle since the kidnaping of the Lindberg baby in the 1920s. A prominent football player and popular sportscaster was charged with a gruesome double homicide. The attorneys for the prosecution and defense were of various races and genders. The evidence presented on each side was at times amazingly simple, visual, and emotional, and at times was verbal, abstract, and probably incomprehensible to jurors. The witnesses included individuals of diverse styles, demeanors, and credibility. The jurors, the recipients of the messages from these various sources, were themselves a mixed group of people of diverse backgrounds, beliefs, and personal experiences who had to sift through the trial material and arrive at a decision as to whether the defendant had been proven guilty or not. The context in which all of this took place was at times tense and sad, and at times filled with humor and positive feelings. Not surprisingly, no experiment has ever captured the extraordinary complexity inherent in this situation, yet almost all of the variables present in this trial (and many not present) have been examined in the social psychological literature on attitude formation and change. This chapter provides an overview of research on these diverse variables and addresses the processes by which these variables are thought to result in influence. Although it has become a cliché to say that the attitude construct is the most indispensable concept in

We argue that organizations often fail to organize effectively because individuals have lay theories about organizing that lead to coordination neglect. We unpack the notion of coordination neglect and describe specific cognitive phenomena that underlie it. To solve the coordination problem, organizations must divide a task and then integrate the components. Individuals display shortcomings that may create problems at both stages. First, lay theories often focus more on division of labor than on integration. We discuss evidence that individuals display partition focus (i.e. they focus on partitioning the task more than on integration) and component focus (i.e. they tend to focus on single components of a tightly interrelated set of capabilities, particularly by investing to create highly specialized components). Second, when individuals attempt to reintegrate a task, they often fail to use a key mechanism for integration: ongoing communication. Individuals exhibit inadequate communication because the ‘curse of knowledge’ makes it difficult to take the perspective of another and communicate effectively. More importantly, because specialists find it especially difficult to communicate with each other, the

recognizing the individual makeup of persons with respect to culture. Using SIT (or other theory bases) as grounding for cultural research programs implies the use of certain methodological approaches. Each study would have to establish the salient "cultures" in each individual's background and include these different "cultures" as independent variables in positivist research. In qualitative research, there would need to be an equally rigorous assessment of the cultural identifiers of each individual. INTRODUCTION Globalization of business highlights the need to understand the management of organizations that span different nations and cultures. In modern multinational, transnational organizations, information technology (IT) must be utilized to achieve efficiencies, coordination, and communication. Clearly, though, cultural differences between countries impact the effectiveness and efficiency of this IT deployment. A study of cultural conflicts, therefore, is of

This paper integrates the largely independent literatures on networks and teams. Our objective is twofold: (1) to understand what constitutes an effective organizational network when much of the work of the organization is done by teams; and (2) to examine what the internal and external social capital needs of teams are. We raise questions to guide future research, and point to potential managerial implications.

Subjects spent 45 s studying the names of 4 members of a hypothetical group. This brief name study exercise produced both implicit liking for and implicit identification with the group. Experiments 2 and 3 replicated these effects and compared them to the mere exposure effect (Zajonc, 1968). The effect due to studying names was much larger than the effect of either 6 extra exposures to each name (in Experiment 2) or 10 extra exposures (in Experiment 3). Implicit partisanship differs from the minimal group effect (Tajfel, Billig, Bundy, & Flament, 1971) because its procedure involves no membership in the target group, and it differs from the mere exposure effect because the target stimuli are presented as members of a group, rather than multiple times as unrelated individuals. A plausible (but not established) interpretation is that the attitude and identification effects are consequences of mere categorization. `Channel surfing' is the act of rapidly scanning television broadcast channels in search of something interesting to watch. For one of the authors, this pastime produced a repeated and puzzling observation: On arriving at and dwelling at least briefly on a televised sports contest between unfamiliar players or teams, he would often notice a near-immediate preference for one of the competitors -- in effect, taking sides in the contest for no reason. There are many possible explanations for such a rapidly formed preference. For example, the viewer may identify with a competitor who is similar on some noticeable attribute such as home town, age, or ethnicity; or the viewer may prefer (or, alternately, be offended by) one competitor's appearance (such as physical features, clothing, hair style); or the viewer may identify with the competitor who is presently winning,...

In a world of incomplete, unenforceable contracts, both reputation effects and fairness concerns have been suggested as mechanisms capable of avoiding or mitigating market failure. Existing experiments show that labor market failure can be avoided in the absence of individual reputations, apparently due to subjects’ other-regarding preferences. This paper introduces a reputation equilibrium with stereotyping (modeled as a belief of type correlation) that predicts cooperation when individual reputations effects are weak. New experiments show that cooperation emerges when such equilibria are likely to exist, but not when existence is unlikely.

Briefly studying names of four members of a hypothetical group produces identification with and attraction to that group, a finding labeled implicit partisanship (IP; Greenwald, Pickrell, & Farnham, 2002). The original demonstration of IP used human groups in a competitive context. Experiments 1 and 2 varied these procedures by using, respectively, a cooperative intergroup context and non-human group members (fictitious car brands). Neither of these variations eliminated the IP effect, indicating unanticipated robustness. Experiment 3 revealed a substantial reduction of the IP effect’s magnitude when the studied names represented a rival university. The reduction of IP through identity opposition supports the interpretation that spontaneous group identification effects carry psychological significance that is comparable to that of more ordinary group identifications. keywords group attraction, group identification, Implicit Association Test, implicit partisanship Please take a minute to memorize the following names

■ Studies have shown that fusiform face area (FFA) activity increases with visual expertise. We present an fMRI study showing that faces from a social category made relevant by an experimental manipulation (members of an experimentally created in-group) preferentially recruited the FFA even when they were matched in exposure to face stimuli from a less significant social category (members of an experimentally created out-group). Faces were randomly assigned to groups and fully counterbalancedsothatnoperceptualcues allowed participants to visually distinguish category membership. The results revealed a pattern of in-group enhancement (not out-group disregard), such that the FFA was selectively engaged following the presentation of in-group compared with out-group or unaffiliated control faces even when the intergroup distinction was arbitrary, and exposure to in-group and out-group faces was equivalent and brief. In addition, individual differences in FFA activity for in-group versus out-group faces were correlated with recognition memory differences for in-group and out-group faces. The effects of group membership on the FFA were not affected by task instruction to respond to in-group or out-group members and were functionally dissociated from early visual processing in the primary visual cortex. This study provides evidence that the FFA is sensitive to top–down influences and may be involved in subordinate level (vs. superordinate level) encoding of stimuli in the absence of long-term exposure or explicit task instructions. ■