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The seven sins of memory. Insights from psychology and cognitive neuroscience
- Am. Psychol
, 1999
"... Though often reliable, human memory is also fallible. This article examines how and why memory can get us into trouble. It is suggested that memory's misdeeds can be classified into 7 basic "sins": transience, absent-mindedness, blocking, misattribution, suggestibility, bias, and pers ..."
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Cited by 93 (10 self)
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Though often reliable, human memory is also fallible. This article examines how and why memory can get us into trouble. It is suggested that memory's misdeeds can be classified into 7 basic "sins": transience, absent-mindedness, blocking, misattribution, suggestibility, bias, and persistence. The first three sins involve differ-ent types of forgetting, the next three refer to different types of distortions, and the final sin concerns intrusive recollections that are difficult to forget. Evidence is reviewed concerning each of the 7 sins from relevant sectors of psychology (cognitive, social, and clinical) and from cognitive neuroscience studies that include patients with focal brain damage or make use of recently developed neuroimaging techniques. Although the 7 sins may appear to reflect flaws in system design, it is argued
Event-based prospective memory and executive control of working memory
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
, 1998
"... In 5 experiments, the character of concurrent cognitive processing was manipulated during an event-based prospective memory task. High- and low-load conditions that differed only in the difficulty of the concurrent task were tested in each experiment. In Experiments 1 and 2, attention-demanding task ..."
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Cited by 64 (15 self)
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In 5 experiments, the character of concurrent cognitive processing was manipulated during an event-based prospective memory task. High- and low-load conditions that differed only in the difficulty of the concurrent task were tested in each experiment. In Experiments 1 and 2, attention-demanding tasks from the literature on executive control produced decrements in prospective memory. In Experiment 3, attention was divided by different loads of articulatory suppression that did not ultimately lead to decrements in prospective memory. A high-load manipulation of a visuospatial task requiring performance monitoring resulted in worse prospective memory in Experiment 4, whereas in Experiment 5 a visuospatial task with little monitoring did not. Results are discussed in terms of executive functions, such as planning and monitoring, that appear to be critical to successful event-based prospective memory. Successfully completing an intended action in the future depends on a type of remembering that has been labeled prospective memory. Thus, successful prospective memory requires remembering to remember. As a cognitive con-struct, however, prospective memory is less monolithic than
A meta-analytic review of prospective memory and aging
- Psychology and Aging
, 2004
"... A meta-analysis of prospective memory (PM) studies revealed that in laboratory settings younger participants outperform older participants on tests of both time- and event-based PM (rs ��.39 and �.34, respectively). Event-based PM tasks that impose higher levels of controlled strategic demand are as ..."
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Cited by 47 (1 self)
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A meta-analysis of prospective memory (PM) studies revealed that in laboratory settings younger participants outperform older participants on tests of both time- and event-based PM (rs ��.39 and �.34, respectively). Event-based PM tasks that impose higher levels of controlled strategic demand are associated with significantly larger age effects than event-based PM tasks that are supported by relatively more automatic processes (rs ��.40 vs. �.14, respectively). However, contrary to the prevailing view in the literature, retrospective memory as measured by free recall is associated with significantly greater age-related decline (r � –.52) than PM, and older participants perform substantially better than their younger counterparts in naturalistic PM studies (rs �.35 and.52 for event- and time-based PM, respectively). Much research on cognitive aging has focused on retrospective memory, or recollection of past events (for a review, see Light, 1991), and almost invariably it has been reported that substantial deficits in this aspect of cognition are associated with normal aging. However, interest has increasingly shifted to investigating prospective memory (PM), that is, memory for future intentions. Relative to retrospective memory, PM is believed to be more dependent on internal control mechanisms (Craik, 1983, 1986). This is because, according to Craik’s (1986) theoretical model, the act of recollection is dependent on reconstructing events in memory, and it is suggested that this process must be guided either by external cues, or in their absence, self-initiated cues. In retrospective memory tasks explicit prompts to recall are provided by the experimenter, whereas in PM tasks the cue is not an explicit request for action, but instead it requires either interpretation of a cue or an internal impetus. It has often been argued that this requirement for self-initiated remembering means that PM tasks should be more susceptible to the effects of adult aging than retrospective memory tasks (e.g., Craik, 1986; Maylor, 1995;
Multiple Processes in Prospective Memory Retrieval: Factors Determining Monitoring versus Spontaneous Retrieval
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
, 2005
"... Theoretically, prospective memory retrieval can be accomplished either by controlled monitoring of the environment for a target event or by a more reflexive process that spontaneously responds to the presence of a target event. These views were evaluated in Experiments 1–4 by examining whether perfo ..."
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Cited by 45 (7 self)
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Theoretically, prospective memory retrieval can be accomplished either by controlled monitoring of the environment for a target event or by a more reflexive process that spontaneously responds to the presence of a target event. These views were evaluated in Experiments 1–4 by examining whether performing a prospective memory task produced costs on the speed of performing the ongoing task. In Experiment 5, the authors directly tested for the existence of spontaneous retrieval. The results supported the multi-process theory (M. A. McDaniel & G. O. Einstein, 2000) predictions that (a) spontaneous retrieval can occur and can support good prospective memory and (b) depending on task demands and individual differences, people rely to different degrees on monitoring versus spontaneous retrieval for prospective remembering.
Effect of age on event-based and time-based prospective memory
- Psychology of Aging
, 1997
"... The magnitude of age differences on event- and time-based prospective memory tasks was investigated in 2 experiments. Participants performed a working memory task and were also required to perform either an event- or time-based prospective action. Control participants performed either the working me ..."
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Cited by 37 (1 self)
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The magnitude of age differences on event- and time-based prospective memory tasks was investigated in 2 experiments. Participants performed a working memory task and were also required to perform either an event- or time-based prospective action. Control participants performed either the working memory task only or the prospective memory task only. Results yielded age differences on both prospective tasks. The age effect was particularly marked on the time-based task. Performance of the event-based prospective task, however, had a higher cost to performance on the concurrent working memory task than the time-based task did, suggesting that event-based responding has a substantial attentional requirement. The older adults also made a significant number of time-monitor-ing errors when time monitoring was their sole task. This suggests that some time-based prospective memory deficits in older adults are due to a fundamental deficit in time monitoring rather than to prospective memory. Recently there has been a great deal of interest in the study of prospective memory in younger and older adults (Brandimonte, Einstein, & McDaniel, 1996). Prospective memory refers to the memory required to carry out planned actions at the appropriate
A multinomial model of event-based prospective memory
- J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn
, 2004
"... Prospective memory is remembering to perform an action in the future. The authors introduce the 1st formal model of event-based prospective memory, namely, a multinomial model that includes 2 separate parameters related to prospective memory processes. The 1st measures preparatory attentional proces ..."
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Cited by 26 (0 self)
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Prospective memory is remembering to perform an action in the future. The authors introduce the 1st formal model of event-based prospective memory, namely, a multinomial model that includes 2 separate parameters related to prospective memory processes. The 1st measures preparatory attentional processes, and the 2nd measures retrospective memory processes. The model was validated in 4 experiments. Manipulations of instructions to place importance on either the prospective memory task or the background task (Experiments 1 and 2) and manipulations of distinctiveness of prospective memory targets (Experiment 2) had expected effects on model parameters, as did a manipulation of the difficulty of prospective memory target encoding (Experiments 3 and 4). An alternative model was also evaluated. Remembering to perform an action in the future is referred to as prospective memory. For example, one may have to take medication at 10 p.m. or give one’s colleague a message when one sees him or her. The former is an example of a time-based task. A time-based task refers to remembering to perform an action at a specific time or after a certain amount of time has elapsed. The latter example is an event-based task, one that must be performed when a certain event occurs. Both time-based and event-based prospective memory tasks constitute a crucial form of memory use in our daily lives, but despite the importance of this form of memory, research on prospective memory was minimal until recently (Einstein & McDaniel, 1996). The recent increase in interest in this area of research has resulted in the development of a number of different explanatory frameworks (e.g., Einstein &
Handbook of experimental psychology
, 1951
"... The primary interest of this investigation concerned working memory functioning and cue/act discrimination during encoding of intentions. The study included manipulations of working memory and intention load to investigate the encoding processes related to prospective memory (PM). Three experiments ..."
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Cited by 23 (0 self)
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The primary interest of this investigation concerned working memory functioning and cue/act discrimination during encoding of intentions. The study included manipulations of working memory and intention load to investigate the encoding processes related to prospective memory (PM). Three experiments are presented that involve working memory distraction tasks at the time of encoding the PM intentions, as well as varying numbers of cues and actions. In the first experiment three cues were paired with one action, in the second, one cue with three actions, and in the third, three cues with three actions. Results suggest that the central executive is involved in binding a cue to an action, and that this operation is key to PM success. Furthermore, the phonological loop seems primarily involved with processing of cues and the visuospatial sketchpad with actions. It is further proposed that the processes of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad must be successful before the central executive can bind the cues and acts together, which is possibly the most important part in the encoding of intentions. By directly examining PM at the time of encoding, information was gained that allows for a more complete understanding of the nature of how we form and execute intentions.
On the relationship between effort toward an ongoing task and cue detection in event-based prospective memory
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
, 2005
"... In recent theories of event-based prospective memory, researchers have debated what degree of resources are necessary to identify a cue as related to a previously established intention. In order to simulate natural variations in attention, the authors manipulated effort toward an ongoing cognitive t ..."
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Cited by 20 (4 self)
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In recent theories of event-based prospective memory, researchers have debated what degree of resources are necessary to identify a cue as related to a previously established intention. In order to simulate natural variations in attention, the authors manipulated effort toward an ongoing cognitive task in which intention-related cues were embedded in 3 experiments. High effort toward the ongoing task resulted in decreased prospective memory only when the cognitive processing required to identify the cue was similar to the cognitive processing required to complete the ongoing activity. When the required processing was different for the 2 tasks, cue detection was not affected by manipulated effort, despite there being an overall cost to decision latencies in the ongoing tasks from possessing the intention. Resource allocation policies and factors that affect them are proposed to account for ongoing vs. prospective memory task performance. When an activity cannot be carried out immediately, people must establish an intention in memory to perform it at a later time. Such memories are labeled prospective memories to denote their forward-looking nature and to distinguish them from retrospective memories for events that transpired in one’s personal past. One
Asking Questions Can Change Choice Behavior: Does It Do So Automatically Or Effortfully?
, 2000
"... The present research uses a technique that permits unique estimation of both automatic and effortful processes in the question-behavior link. Results show that individuals asked to report behavioral intent (versus those not asked) are more likely to choose options that are highly accessible and posi ..."
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Cited by 17 (4 self)
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The present research uses a technique that permits unique estimation of both automatic and effortful processes in the question-behavior link. Results show that individuals asked to report behavioral intent (versus those not asked) are more likely to choose options that are highly accessible and positively valenced regardless of cognitive resources at the time of processing. This suggests that the effect of intent questions on subsequent behavior is primarily the result of automatic, as opposed to effortful, processing. Practically, this suggests that efforts to debias this robust effect will need to affect non-conscious processes, and adjust for the automatic impact on respondents behavior of being askedan intention question. How Automatically Do Questions Change Behavior? 3 Asking Questions Can Change Choice Behavior: Does It Do So Automatically Or Effortfully? Research on the relationship between intentions and behavior has shown that individuals regularly report biased assessment...
The properties of retention intervals and their affect on retaining prospective memories
, 2000
"... Five experiments were conducted to explore how the character of the retention interval affected event-based prospective memory. According to the canons of retrospective memory, prospective per-formance should have been worse with increasing delays between intention formation and the time it was appr ..."
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Cited by 16 (5 self)
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Five experiments were conducted to explore how the character of the retention interval affected event-based prospective memory. According to the canons of retrospective memory, prospective per-formance should have been worse with increasing delays between intention formation and the time it was appropriate to complete an action. That result did not occur. Rather, prospective memory was better with increasing retention intervals in Experiments 1 A, IB, and 3. In manipulating the nature of the retention interval, the authors found that there were independent contributions of retention interval length and the number of intervening activities, with more activities leading to better prospective memory (Experi-ments 2 and 3). The identical retention intervals did not improve retrospective memory in Experiment 4. Theoretical explanations for these dissociations between prospective and retrospective memory are considered. In the classic studies performed by Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885/ 1964), he demonstrated that memory declines with increasing delays between study and test. By teaching himself lists of 13 syllables to a criterion of two correct recalls, he systematically varied the retention interval from 20 min to 31 days. Ebbinghaus discovered that the forgetting curve, as it is now known, was approximated by a logarithmic function with a fast initial rate of forgetting over the near term and a slower decline in forgetting as retention intervals were increased. The forgetting curve appears to be a very general property of retrospective memory because it is true of foreign language learning (Bahrick & Phelps, 1987), typing skills (Baddeley & Longman, 1978) and even cardiopulmonary resuscitation skills (McKenna & Glendon, 1985). Although there is no agreement on why this law of forgetting is so pervasive across different materials, many memory theorists favor interfer-ence accounts of retrospective forgetting over decay theories that depict memory traces as simply crumbling into parts over time
