Leading algorithms for Boolean satisfiability (SAT) are based on either a depth-first tree traversal of the search space (the DLL procedure [6]) or resolution (the DP procedure [7]). In this work we introduce a variant of BreadthFirst Search (BFS) based on the ability of Zero-Suppressed Binary Decision Diagrams (ZDDs) to compactly represent sparse or structured collections of subsets.

Many algorithms for Boolean satisfiability (SAT) work within the framework of resolution as a proof system, and thus on unsatisfiable instances they can be viewed as attempting to find proofs by resolution. However it has been known since the 1980s that every resolution proof of the pigeonhole principle (PHP n ), suitably encoded as a CNF instance, includes exponentially many steps [1]. Therefore SAT solvers based upon the DLL procedure [2] or the DP procedure [3] must take exponential time. Polynomial-sized proofs of the pigeonhole principle exist for different proof systems, but general-purpose SAT solvers often remain confined to resolution. This result is in correlation with empirical evidence. Previously, we introduced...

Abstract. In this paper, we show how proper benchmarking, which matches day-to-day use of formal methods, allows us to assess direct improvements for SAT use for formal methods. Proper uses of our benchmark allowed us to prove that previous results on tuning SAT solver for Bounded Model Checking (BMC) were overly optimistic and that a simpler algorithm was in fact more efficient. 1

Finding countermodels is an effective way of disproving false conjectures. In first-order predicate logic, model finding is an undecidable problem. But if a finite model exists, it can be found by exhaustive search. The finite model generation problem in the first-order logic can also be translated to the satisfiability problem in the propositional logic. But a direct translation may not be very efficient. This paper discusses how to take the symmetries into account so as to make the resulting problem easier. A static method for adding constraints is presented, which can be thought of as an approximation of the least number heuristic (LNH). Also described is a dynamic method, which asks a model searcher like SEM to generate a set of partial models, and then gives each partial model to a propositional prover. The two methods are analyzed, and compared with each other.

Abstract. The finite model generation problem in the first-order logic is a generalization of the propositional satisfiability (SAT) problem. An essential algorithm for solving the problem is backtracking search. In this paper, we show how to improve such a search procedure by lemma learning. For efficiency reasons, we represent the lemmas by propositional formulas and use a SAT solver to perform the necessary reasoning. We have extended the first-order model generator SEM, combining it with the SAT solver SATO. Experimental results show that the search time may be reduced significantly on many problems. 1

The original algorithm for the SAT problem, Variable Elimination Resolution (VER/DP) has exponential space complexity. To tackle that, the backtracking based DPLL procedure [2] is used in SAT solvers. We present a combination of both of the techniques. We use NiVER, a special case of VER, to eliminate some variables in a preprocessing step and then solve the simplified problem using a DPLL SAT solver. NiVER is a strictly formula size not increasing resolution based preprocessor. Best worst-case upper bounds for general SAT solving (arbitrary clause length) in terms of N (Number of variables), K (Number of clauses) and L (Literal count) are 2 , respectively [14]. In the experiments, NiVER resulted in upto 74% decrease in N , 58% decrease in K and 46% decrease in L. In many real life instances, we observed that most of the resolvents for several variables are tautologies. There will be no increase in space due to VER on them. Hence, despite its simplicity, NiVER does result in easier instances. In most of the cases, NiVER takes less than one second for preprocessing. In case NiVER removable variables are not present, due to very low overhead, the cost of NiVER is insignificant. We also study the e#ect of combining NiVER with HyPre [3], a preprocessor based on hyper binary resolution. Based on experimental results, we classify the SAT instances into 4 classes. NiVER consistently performs well in all those classes and hence can be incorporated into all general purpose SAT solvers.