. This paper describes an approach that uses interactive computer games as an experimental setting for the study of emotion, behavior, and nonverbal communication. In the first, more technical part, we present a method that allows to automatically code facial behavior of a subject playing a computer game. In this procedure, facial behavior is registered automatically with the aid of small plastic dots which are affixed to pre-defined regions of the subjects face. The resulting dot patterns are then classified with an artificial neural network. In the second part of the article, we discuss the theoretical framework of our experimental approach. In this view, the computer game provides a relatively simple but complete context - a microworld in the sense of Toda's 'Fungus Eater' - for the interpretation of the internal emotional and cognitive regulatory processes. In the third part, we contrast the empirical work with a synthetic approach where we can use the theoretical assumptions and t...

This paper introduces TABASCO, an architecture for software agents aimed at integrating results from functional theories in emotion research and insights on the impact of the capacities and limitations of perception in a framework orientated along the situated "New AI"/ALife approach. This expository paper first briefly summarizes current views on the nature and function of emotion and then discusses related current appraisal theories in more detail. A survey of existing approaches to emotion synthesis is followed by a first outline of the TABASCO architecture, relating it to the areas of research in psychology, ALife and agent architectures.

We argue that modelling emotions among agents in artificial societies will further the computational study of social norms. The appraisal theory of emotions is presented as theoretical underpinning of Jon Elster's view that social norms are sustained not only by material sanctions but also by emotions such as shame and contempt. Appraisal theory suggests the following twofold relationship between social norms and emotions: First, social norms play an important role in the generation of emotions; second, emotion regulation depends heavily on the influence of social norms. Based on these insights, we present an emotion-based view on the influential study by Conte and Castelfranchi (1995); without mentioning emotions, they argue that a function of social norms is aggression control. Appraisal theory offers a principled framework for the development of TABASCO, a three-layer agent architecture incorporating social norms. At the macro level, the computational study of social norms can profit by economic and sociobiological theories, which suggest that emotions play an important role in sustaining norms of cooperation and reciprocity. We show how appraisal theory can serve as a link between the macro and micro levels, and summarize the potential benefits from the development of TABASCO.

The authors report results from 5 experiments that describe the influence of emotional states on trust. They found that incidental emotions significantly influence trust in unrelated settings. Happiness and gratitude—emotions with positive valence—increase trust, and anger—an emotion with negative valence—decreases trust. Specifically, they found that emotions characterized by other-person control (anger and gratitude) and weak control appraisals (happiness) influence trust significantly more than emotions characterized by personal control (pride and guilt) or situational control (sadness). These findings suggest that emotions are more likely to be misattributed when the appraisals of the emotion are consistent with the judgment task than when the appraisals of the emotion are inconsistent with the judgment task. Emotions do not influence trust when individuals are aware of the source of their emotions or when individuals are very familiar with the trustee.

: Emotions should play an important role in the design of interfaces because people interact with machines as if they were social actors. This paper presents a literature review on affective expressions through speech, music and body language. It summarizes the quality and quantity of their parameters, their recognition accuracy and successful examples of synthesis. Moreover, a model for the convincingness of affective expressions, based on Fogg and Hsiang Tseng (1999), was developed and tested. The empirical data did not support the original model and therefore this paper proposes a new model, which is based on appropriateness and intensity of the expressions. Furthermore, the experiment investigated if the type of emotion (happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear and disgust), knowledge about the source (human or machine), the level of abstraction (natural face, computer rendered face and matrix face) and medium of presentation (visual, audio/visual, audio) of an affective expressio...

Three studies tested the idea that when social identity is salient, group-based appraisals elicit specific emotions and action tendencies toward out-groups. Participants ' group memberships were made salient and the collective support apparently enjoyed by the in-group was measured or manipulated. The authors then measured anger and fear (Studies 1 and 2) and anger and contempt (Study 3), as well as the desire to move against or away from the out-group. Intergroup anger was distinct from intergroup fear, and the inclination to act against the out-group was distinct from the tendency to move away from it. Participants who perceived the in-group as strong were more likely to experience anger toward the out-group and to desire to take action against it. The effects of perceived in-group strength on offensive action tendencies were mediated by anger. The annals of history and contemporary news sources bear overwhelming witness to the variety of ways in which out-groups are devalued, discriminated against, and sometimes decimated by the members of other groups. One group is shunned and avoided, a second economically exploited, another belittled and scapegoated, and yet another systematically murdered. In contributing a social psychological perspective to the understanding of negative intergroup behavior, social psychologists have typically focused on prejudice---a negative evaluation of a group and its members-as the cause of discrimination. Despite the insights provided by such an approach (for reviews, see Brewer & Brown, 1998;

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The primary objective of this article is to examine the impact of preconsumption affect on consumers ’ postpurchase evaluations. More specifically, we wanted to investigate how the two basic dimensions of affect—pleasure and arousal—contribute to customer evaluations of different types of services. To test our hypotheses, four service settings reflecting the quadrants in Russell’s Circumplex Model of Affect were chosen. Data were collected at two points of time: at the preprocess stage and immediately after the core service delivery. The results of this study suggest that pleasure and arousal, the two dimensions of emotional responses to the preprocess service environment, may interact in determining postpurchase evaluations. The interaction effect was observed for global satisfaction judgments and for repeat purchase behavior, thus suggesting that the combined effects of arousal and pleasure need to be considered in the design of preconsumption service settings. � 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Recently, the study of consumption-related emotions has received increasing attention from consumer-behavior researchers (Richins, 1997). Affective reactions to consumption stimuli deserve specific study because consumer emotions may be as essential as cognitive processes to

This article presents the Appraisal Tendency Framework (ATF) (Lerner & Keltner, 2000, 2001; Lerner & Tiedens, 2006) as a basis for predicting the influence of specific emotions on consumer decision making. In particular, the ATF addresses how and why specific emotions carry over from past situations to color future judgments and choices. After reviewing the main assumptions and the five main principles of the framework, two streams of research are presented. One stream addresses emotional carry-over effects on the assessment of risk; the other addresses carry-over effects on the assessment of monetary value. Because risk assessment and value assessment are fundamental psychological processes, understanding them has the potential to yield manifold implications for consumer judgment and decision making. The concluding sections highlight limitations and future directions of the framework.

The centrality of emotion and self to social life is almost axiomatic in the psychological literature. What is less accepted, or at least less frequently discussed, is the essential interconnection between these two domains. Yet, as the quotations above suggest, self and emotion are inextricably linked. The experience of self is shaped by a constant and ever-changing flurry of emotions (i.e., “passions”), and feelings of pride, shame, and other emotions could not exist without perceptions and evaluations of the self (Brown & Marshall, 2001). The traditional disconnect between the self and emotion literatures stems, in part, from their divergent theoretical roots. Emotion researchers have, to a large extent, embraced a biological model of affect. This approach has led to major advances in our understanding of the neural underpinnings and adaptive functions of emotions, their interactions with basic cognitive processes, and their automatically recognized and expressed nonverbal signals (Davidson, 2001; Ekman, 2003; LeDoux, 1996; Panksepp, 1998; Phelps, 2005). However, this approach has also led researchers to neglect psychologically complex emotions, such as pride and shame, which are more closely linked to self-evaluative processes. The disconnect also results from the traditional emphasis in the self literature on cognitive rather than affective processes. When research on self-processes began to flourish in the late 1970s and 1980s, the cognitive perspective was emerging as the dominant paradigm, displacing the previously dominant paradigm of behaviorism (Robins, Gosling, & Craik, 1999; Tracy, Robins, & Gosling, 2003). The cognitive approach to studying the self has led to major developments in our understanding of how the self “works ” from an information-processing perspective