Behavioral studies suggest that two affective dimensions of personality are associated with working memory (WM) function. WM load is known to modulate neural activity in caudal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), a brain region critical for the cognitive control of behavior. On this basis, we hypothesized that neural activity in caudal ACC during a WM task should be associated with personality: negatively with behavioral approach sensitivity (BAS), and positively with behavioral inhibition sensitivity (BIS). Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, we measured brain activity in 14 participants performing a 3-back WM task. Higher selfreported BAS predicted better WM performance, r = .27, and lower WMrelated activation in caudal ACC, r = -.84, suggesting personality differences in cognitive control. The data bolster approach-withdrawal (action control) theories of personality, and suggest refinements to the dominant views of ACC and personality. 3 Personality Predicts Working Memory Rel...

Purpose—a cognitive process that defines life goals and provides personal meaning—may help explain disparate empirical social science findings. Devoting effort and making progress toward life goals provides a significant, renewable source of engagement and meaning. Purpose offers a testable, causal system that synthesizes outcomes including life expectancy, satisfaction, and mental and physical health. These outcomes may be explained best by considering the motivation of the individual—a motivation that comes from having a purpose. We provide a detailed definition with specific hypotheses derived from a synthesis of relevant findings from social, behavioral, biological, and cognitive literatures. To illustrate the uniqueness of the purpose model, we compared purpose with competing contemporary models that offer similar predictions. Addressing the structural features unique to purpose opens opportunities to build upon existing causal models of “how and why ” health and well-being develop and change over time. What do volunteer services, social support, pet care, and religious attendance have in common? Recent studies indicate that people participating in these activities live longer than those who do not. Volunteers had a 60 % lower mortality rate compared with

Purpose can be characterized as a central, self-organizing life aim. Central in that when present, purpose is a predominant theme of a person’s identity. Selforganizing in that it provides a framework for systematic behavior patterns in everyday life. As a life aim, a purpose generates continual goals and targets for efforts to be devoted. A purpose provides a bedrock foundation that allows a person to be more resilient to obstacles, stress, and strain. In this paper, we outline a theoretical model of purpose development. Besides outlining various essential ingredients to creating a purpose in life, we describe three broad pathways. The first process is proactive involving effort over time and only resulting in a purpose after gradual refinement and clarification. The second process is reactive involving a transformative life event where a purpose arises and adds clarity to the person's life. The third process is social learning- involving the formation of purpose through observation, imitation, and modeling. Our aim is to stimulate more research on this higher-level construct in the architecture of personality.

Florida State UniversityThe purpose of this chapter is to provide a preliminary, speculative statement of a new motivational theory. We propose that motivation for a certain outcome can gradually change in strength over time as a function of whether it is satisfied or frustrated. Specifically, we propose that satisfaction will increase the strength of the motivation, whereas nonsatisfaction will gradually weaken it. This theory runs directly contrary to the standard motivational theories, which have long held that satisfaction will reduce drive (Hull, 1943; Spence, 1956). However, we do not present the new view as a contrary or rival view, but rather a compatible one. The difference lies in the time frames. In the very short run, satisfying a motivation will decrease the drive. In the longer run, however, satisfaction will ensure that when the drive does come back, it will do so with increased strength. Satisfaction reinforces desire, and so when desire emerges again, its strength will be increased. Conversely, to want something without getting it is at best an absence of reinforcement and quite possibly is punishing, and so that experience will gradually diminish and perhaps ultimately extinguish the motivation. STATEMENT OF THEORY

sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/1745691611416992