This is a survey of basic facts about bounded arithmetic and about the relationships between bounded arithmetic and propositional proof complexity. We introduce the theories S 2 of bounded arithmetic and characterize their proof theoretic strength and their provably total functions in terms of the polynomial time hierarchy. We discuss other axiomatizations of bounded arithmetic, such as minimization axioms. It is shown that the bounded arithmetic hierarchy collapses if and only if bounded arithmetic proves that the polynomial hierarchy collapses. We discuss Frege and extended Frege proof length, and the two translations from bounded arithmetic proofs into propositional proofs. We present some theorems on bounding the lengths of propositional interpolants in terms of cut-free proof length and in terms of the lengths of resolution refutations. We then define the RazborovRudich notion of natural proofs of P NP and discuss Razborov's theorem that certain fragments of bounded arithmetic cannot prove superpolynomial lower bounds on circuit size, assuming a strong cryptographic conjecture. Finally, a complete presentation of a proof of the theorem of Razborov is given. 1 Review of Computational Complexity 1.1 Feasibility This article will be concerned with various "feasible" forms of computability and of provability. For something to be feasibly computable, it must be computable in practice in the real world, not merely e#ectively computable in the sense of being recursively computable.

We consider some Bounded Set Theories (BST), which are analogues to Bounded Arithmetic. Corresponding provably-recursive operations over sets are characterized in terms of explicit definability and PTIME- or LOGSPACE-computability. We also present some conservativity results and describe a relation between BST, possibly with Anti-Foundation Axiom, and a Logic of Inductive Definitions (LID) and Finite Model Theory.

Abstract. We are concerned with first order theories of operations, based on combinatory logic and extended with the type W of binary words. The theories include forms of “positive ” and “bounded ” induction on W and naturally characterize primitive recursive and polytime functions (respectively). We prove that the recursive content of the theories under investigation (i.e. the associated class of provably total functions on W) is invariant under addition of 1. an axiom of choice for operations and a uniformity principle, restricted to positive conditions; 2. a (form of) self-referential truth, providing a fixed point theorem for predicates. As to the proof methods, we apply a kind of internal forcing semantics, non-standard variants of realizability and cut-elimination. §1. Introduction. In this paper, we deal with theories of abstract computable operations, underlying the so-called explicit mathematics, introduced by Feferman in the midseventies as a logical frame to formalize Bishop’s style constructive mathematics ([18], [19]). Following a common usage, these theories

Abstract. This paper develops the very basic notions of analysis in a weak secondorder theory of arithmetic BTFA whose provably total functions are the polynomial time computable functions. We formalize within BTFA the real number system and the notion of a continuous real function of a real variable. The theory BTFA is able to prove the intermediate value theorem, wherefore it follows that the system of real numbers is a real closed ordered field. In the last section of the paper, we show how to interpret the theory BTFA in Robinson’s theory of arithmetic Q. This fact entails that the elementary theory of the real closed ordered fields is interpretable in Q. §1. Introduction. The formalization of mathematics within second-order arithmetic has a long and distinguished history. We may say that it goes back to Richard Dedekind, and that it has been pursued by, among others, Hermann Weyl, David Hilbert, Paul Bernays, Harvey Friedman, and Stephen Simpson and his students (we may also mention the insights of Georg Kreisel, Solomon Feferman,

We show that the following three statements are equivalent: QPV is conservative over QALV, QALV proves its open induction formulas, and QALV proves P=NC¹. Here QPV and QALV are first order theories whose function symbols range over polynomial-time and NC¹ functions, respectively.

. A formal approach to feasible numbers, as well as to middle and small numbers, is introduced, based on ideas of Parikh (1971) and improving his formalization. The "vague" set F of feasible numbers intuitively satisfies the axioms 0 2 F , F + 1 ` F and 2 1000 62 F , where the latter is stronger than a condition considered by Parikh, and seems to be treated rigorously here for the first time. Our technical considerations, though quite simple, have some unusual consequences. A discussion of methodological questions and of relevance to the foundations of mathematics and of computer science is an essential part of the paper. 1 Introduction How to formalize the intuitive notion of feasible numbers? To see what feasible numbers are, let us start by counting: 0,1,2,3, and so on. At this point, A.S. Yesenin-Volpin (in his "Analysis of potential feasibility", 1959) asks: "What does this `and so on' mean?" "Up to what extent `and so on'?" And he answers: "Up to exhaustion!" Note that by cos...

We define the sharply bounded hierarchy, SBH (QL), a hierarchy of classes within P , using quasilinear-time computation and quantification over values of length log n. It generalizes the limited nondeterminism hierarchy introduced by Buss and Goldsmith, while retaining the invariance properties. The new hierarchy has several alternative characterizations. We define both SBH (QL) and its corresponding hierarchy of function classes, FSBH(QL),and present a variety of problems in these classes, including ql m -complete problems for each class in SBH (QL). We discuss the structure of the hierarchy, and show that certain simple structural conditions on it would imply P 6= PSPACE. We present characterizations of SBH (QL) relations based on alternating Turing machines and on first-order definability, as well as recursion-theoretic characterizations of function classes corresponding to SBH (QL).

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We de ne the sharply bounded hierarchy, SBH (QL), a hierarchy of classes within P, using quasilinear-time computation and quanti cation over strings of length log n. It generalizes the limited nondeterminism hierarchy introduced by Buss and Goldsmith, while retaining the invariance properties. The new hierarchy hasseveral alternative characterizations. We de ne both SBH (QL) and its corresponding hierarchy of function classes, ql and present a variety of problems in these classes, including m-complete problems for each class in SBH (QL). We discuss the structure of the hierarchy, and show that determining its precise relationship to deterministic time classes can imply P 6 = PSPACE. We present characterizations of SBH (QL) relations based on alternating Turing machines and on rst-order de nability, aswell as recursion-theoretic characterizations of function classes corresponding to SBH (QL).

this paper various devices operating directly on structures, without encoding. The motivation and benefits for doing this are manyfold. On a fundamental level, encodings of structures seem to be a technical device rather than an intrinsic feature. This point has already been made by several mathematicians such as Tarski [Tar86], and Harvey Friedman [Fri71] (see Section 5). It has come up more recently in the context of databases, where devices computing on structures model more acurately database computation carried out against an abstract interface hiding the internal representation of data. Thus, the primary benefit of studying devices and languages computing on structures is that they clarify issues which are obscured in classical devices such as Turing machines. For example, they yield new notions of complexity, quite different from classical computational complexity. They reflect more acurately the actual complexity of computation, which, like database computation, cannot take advantage of encodings of structures. An example is provided by the query even on a set