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Construal-Level Theory of Psychological Distance
, 2010
"... People are capable of thinking about the future, the past, remote locations, another person’s perspective, and counterfactual alternatives. Without denying the uniqueness of each process, it is proposed that they constitute different forms of traversing psychological distance. Psychological distance ..."
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People are capable of thinking about the future, the past, remote locations, another person’s perspective, and counterfactual alternatives. Without denying the uniqueness of each process, it is proposed that they constitute different forms of traversing psychological distance. Psychological distance is egocentric: Its reference point is the self in the here and now, and the different ways in which an object might be removed from that point—in time, in space, in social distance, and in hypotheticality—constitute different distance dimensions. Transcending the self in the here and now entails mental construal, and the farther removed an object is from direct experience, the higher (more abstract) the level of construal of that object. Supporting this analysis, research shows (a) that the various distances are cognitively related to each other, (b) that they similarly influence and are influenced by level of mental construal, and (c) that they similarly affect prediction, preference, and action.
Immersion versus transcendence: How pictures and words impact evaluative associations assessed by the Implicit Association Test
- Social Psychological and Personality Science
, 2015
"... Research indicates that words activate high-level construal (processing that highlights central, goal-relevant features of events) whereas pictures activate low-level construal (processing that highlights idiosyncratic, peripheral features). We examine how these differences between words and picture ..."
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Research indicates that words activate high-level construal (processing that highlights central, goal-relevant features of events) whereas pictures activate low-level construal (processing that highlights idiosyncratic, peripheral features). We examine how these differences between words and pictures impact evaluative associations. Research has demonstrated that high-level relative to low-level construal promotes evaluative associations that enhance self-control, promoting associations that link smaller prox-imal rewards (temptations) with negativity and larger-distal rewards (goals) with positivity. Examining dieting as a self-control con-flict, we find that words promote sensitivity to goal-relevant dimension of stimuli (i.e., health) while pictures promote sensitivity to temptation-relevant dimension of stimuli (i.e., taste) among those concerned with dieting in a single-category implicit association test (SC-IAT). An additional study finds that changing the presentation format of the IAT from pictures to words increases the tendency to associate temptations (i.e., desserts) with negativity among those concerned with dieting. Theoretical, methodolo-gical, and practical implications of these findings are discussed. Keywords picture versus words, verbal versus visual processing, construal level, evaluative associations The adage ‘‘a picture is worth a thousand words’ ’ implies that pictures are richer, more effective, and convey more informa-tion than words do. We accept that pictures and words function differently in communication, but challenge the idea that pic-tures are necessarily better or more effective than words. Previ-ous research has found that whereas pictures immerse people into the specifics of events, words promote transcendence from them (e.g., Amit, Algom, & Trope, 2009a). In this article, we examine the implications of such differences in processing on people’s evaluative associations—the ease with which people associate objects with positivity and negativity—in the context of a self-control conflict and discuss some of the theoretical, methodological, and practical implications.
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"... Imagine that you have just returned from a vacation. You want to get back in touch with your close friends by sending them an email. One option is to send them some pictures from the vacation; a different option is to describe the vaca-tion using words. What would you do? Now, suppose that instead o ..."
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Imagine that you have just returned from a vacation. You want to get back in touch with your close friends by sending them an email. One option is to send them some pictures from the vacation; a different option is to describe the vaca-tion using words. What would you do? Now, suppose that instead of sending the email to your close friends, you plan to send an email to your boss or to a coworker who is only a casual acquaintance. Does your answer change? In everyday life, we often face dilemmas like this while interacting with other people. For example, we need to decide whether to write an email, call on the phone, or have a face-to-face inter-action with another person; add an emoticon (emotion icon) to an email or write a plain text; create a photo album or write a text in the “status ” box in our Facebook page; add a picture to a twitter message or not; and so on.
Article Immersion Versus Transcendence: How Pictures and Words Impact Evaluative Associations Assessed by the Implicit Association Test
"... Research indicates that words activate high-level construal (processing that highlights central, goal-relevant features of events) whereas pictures activate low-level construal (processing that highlights idiosyncratic, peripheral features). We examine how these differences between words and picture ..."
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Research indicates that words activate high-level construal (processing that highlights central, goal-relevant features of events) whereas pictures activate low-level construal (processing that highlights idiosyncratic, peripheral features). We examine how these differences between words and pictures impact evaluative associations. Research has demonstrated that high-level relative to low-level construal promotes evaluative associations that enhance self-control, promoting associations that link smaller prox-imal rewards (temptations) with negativity and larger-distal rewards (goals) with positivity. Examining dieting as a self-control con-flict, we find that words promote sensitivity to goal-relevant dimension of stimuli (i.e., health) while pictures promote sensitivity to temptation-relevant dimension of stimuli (i.e., taste) among those concerned with dieting in a single-category implicit association test (SC-IAT). An additional study finds that changing the presentation format of the IAT from pictures to words increases the tendency to associate temptations (i.e., desserts) with negativity among those concerned with dieting. Theoretical, methodolo-gical, and practical implications of these findings are discussed. Keywords picture versus words, verbal versus visual processing, construal level, evaluative associations The adage ‘‘a picture is worth a thousand words’ ’ implies that pictures are richer, more effective, and convey more informa-tion than words do. We accept that pictures and words function differently in communication, but challenge the idea that pic-tures are necessarily better or more effective than words. Previ-ous research has found that whereas pictures immerse people into the specifics of events, words promote transcendence from them (e.g., Amit, Algom, & Trope, 2009a). In this article, we examine the implications of such differences in processing on people’s evaluative associations—the ease with which people associate objects with positivity and negativity—in the context of a self-control conflict and discuss some of the theoretical, methodological, and practical implications.
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, 2015
"... Beneath the Human Capital Investment: Modelling student debt awareness and a Critical examination of financial aid materials using ..."
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Beneath the Human Capital Investment: Modelling student debt awareness and a Critical examination of financial aid materials using
Visual Imagery and Moral Judgment
"... Reprints and permission: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0956797611434965 ..."
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Reprints and permission: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0956797611434965
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"... What is the difference between far and further? Investigations into such psychological distancing – removal from an egocentric reference point – have suggested similarities between geographical space, time, probability, and social distance. We draw on these similarities to propose that experiencing ..."
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What is the difference between far and further? Investigations into such psychological distancing – removal from an egocentric reference point – have suggested similarities between geographical space, time, probability, and social distance. We draw on these similarities to propose that experiencing any kind of distance will reduce sensitivity to any other distance. Ten studies varied the initial distance of an event and assessed sensitivity to a second distance. Consistently, people were less responsive to a given span of distance when it was distal versus proximal. This effect held using each of the four distances as the initial instantiation of distance; it also held using each dimension to assess sensitivity to distance (i.e., as the secondary distance dimension). These findings suggest that the dimensions of psychological distance share a common, interchangeable meaning and that the cross-dimension difference between far and further is less than that between near and far.
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"... For the last quarter of a century, information sharing in decision-making groups has been studied intensively in social psychology. The direction of this line of research was set by Stasser and Titus (1985) who suggested that group discussions may be dominated by information held by all group member ..."
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For the last quarter of a century, information sharing in decision-making groups has been studied intensively in social psychology. The direction of this line of research was set by Stasser and Titus (1985) who suggested that group discussions may be dominated by information held by all group members prior to discussion (shared information) rather than information held by only one group member (unshared information). Stasser and Titus ’ work led to a flood of studies, making the proposed sharedness bias one of the most consistent findings in small group research (for a meta-analysis, see Lu, Yuan, & McLeod, 2011). However, in the same article, Stasser and Titus also mentioned a second idea, namely, that discussions may tend to be biased toward “information that supports members ’ existent preferences” (p. 1467). Put differently, group members might pool more preference-consistent information (i.e., information that sup-ports their prediscussion decision preferences) than preference-inconsistent information (i.e., information that contradicts these initial choices). To date, this suggestion has received little attention, at least empirically. This lack of attention in small group research is remark-able, given the vast amount of work discussing consistency biases in individual information processing. The tendency to favor information consistent with one’s own beliefs, expecta-tions, attitudes, or decisions is a long-recognized and empiri-cally well-documented phenomenon (for a review, see Nickerson, 1998). For example, it has been shown that people actively search for information that supports their own preex-isting views and/or avoid disconfirming information, be it in the domain of attitudes, beliefs, or stereotypes (e.g., Hart et al., 2009). Moreover, people tend to evaluate information in the
www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph Article Prevalence of Polyherbacy in Ambulatory Visits to Traditional Chinese Medicine Clinics in Taiwan
"... Abstract: Patients with a polyherbal prescription are more likely to receive duplicate medications and thus suffer from adverse drug reactions. We conducted a population-based retrospective study to examine the items of Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) per prescription in the ambulatory care of traditi ..."
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Abstract: Patients with a polyherbal prescription are more likely to receive duplicate medications and thus suffer from adverse drug reactions. We conducted a population-based retrospective study to examine the items of Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) per prescription in the ambulatory care of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in Taiwan. We retrieved complete TCM ambulatory visit datasets for 2010 from the National Health Insurance database in Taiwan. A total of 59,790 patients who received 313,482 CHM prescriptions were analyzed. Drug prescriptions containing more than five drugs were classified as polyherbal prescriptions; 41.6% of patients were given a polyherbal prescription. There were on average 5.2 ± 2.5 CHMs: 2.3 ± 1.1 compound herbal formula items, and 3.0 ± 2.5 single Chinese herb items in a single prescription. Approximately 4.6 % of patients were prescribed 10 CHMs or more. Men had a lower odds ratio (OR) among polyherbal prescriptions (OR = 0.96, 95 % confidence interval [CI] 0.92–0.99), and middle-aged patients (35–49 years) had the highest frequency of polyherbal prescription (OR = 1.19, 95 % CI = 1.13–1.26). Patients with neoplasm, skin and subcutaneous
Psychological Science XX(X) 1 –8 © The Author(s) 2012 Reprints and permission: sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
, 1981
"... cony of their Toronto apartment, causing her to fall 17 stories to her death (“Full Parole, ” 2010). We suspect that, on reading the previous sentence, you pictured this tragic event in your “mind’s eye ” and judged this action to be morally wrong (if only implicitly). Such introspection suggests th ..."
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cony of their Toronto apartment, causing her to fall 17 stories to her death (“Full Parole, ” 2010). We suspect that, on reading the previous sentence, you pictured this tragic event in your “mind’s eye ” and judged this action to be morally wrong (if only implicitly). Such introspection suggests that these two processes may be causally related and, more generally, that visual imagery (Kosslyn, 1980) may play an important role in moral judgment. But what role, if any, does it play? One pos-sibility is that visual imagery simply heightens the salience of all moral considerations, a hypothesis consistent with recent findings concerning the effects of closing one’s eyes on moral judgment (Caruso & Gino, 2011). Alternatively, visual imag-ery may preferentially support some moral judgments over others. The present research tested the latter hypothesis. Recent research in moral psychology has examined the pervasive tension between the rights of the individual and the greater good, employing moral dilemmas that capture this ten-
