The abundance of information provided by completely sequenced genomes de � nes a starting point for new insights in the multilevel organization of organisms and their evolution. At the lowest level enzymes and other protein complexes are formed by aggregating multiple polypeptides. At a higher level enzymes group conceptually into metabolic pathways as part of a dynamic information-processing system, and substrates are processed by enzymes yielding other substrates. A method based on a combination of sequence information with graph topology of the underlying pathway is presented. With this approach pathways of different organisms are related to each other by phylogenetic analysis, extending conventional phylogenetic analysis of individual enzymes. The new method is applied to pathways related to electron transfer and to the Krebs citric acid cycle. In addition to providing a more comprehensive understanding of similarities and differences between organisms, this method indicates different evolutionary rates between substrates and enzymes. Key words: metabolic networks, phylogeny, electron transfer, citric acid cycle, microbial genomes. 1.

Although commentators periodically declare that Freud is dead, his repeated burials lie on shaky grounds. Critics typically attack an archaic version of psychodynamic theory that most clinicians similarly consider obsolete. Central to contemporary psychodynamic theory is a series of propositions about (a) unconscious cognitive, affective, and motivational processes; (b) ambivalence and the tendency for affective and motivational dynamics to operate in parallel and produce compromise solutions; (c) the origins of many personality and social dispositions in childhood; (d) mental representations of the self, others, and relationships; and (e) developmental dynamics. An enormous body of research in cognitive, social, developmental, and personality psychology now supports many of these propositions. Freud's scientific legacy has implications for a wide range of domains in psychology, such as integration of affective and motivational constraints into connectionist models in cognitive science. Freud, like Elvis, has been dead for a number of years but continues to be cited with some regularity. Although the majority of clinicians report that they rely to some degree upon psychodynamic 1 principles

This article presents the (hi)story about the Nordunet project and its “plug. ” This is a (hi)story about how the Internet “won ” the “religious war ” about computer communication protocol standards in Scandinavia. This history teaches us important lessons about how the Nordic countries (except Denmark) became the leading ones in the adoption and use of the Internet. On a more general level this story also teaches us an important lesson about the importance of gateways in the design and establishment of large scale computer networks and information infrastructures. It is a universal truth the development of such technologies requires standards. And this story teaches us that gateways are equally important. The main conclusion to be drawn is that what really matters in the development of such technologies is to combine and balance the use of gateways and standards in a proper way. 1

This article discusses the concept of social exclusion with an eye to assessing its utility in the study of ethnic and racial group inequality in the modern nation state. A brief review of the literature and some methodological discussion are offered. The article then examines race-based social exclusion in the United States, showing bow race and ethnicity can inhibit the full participation of individuals in a society’s economic life. The concept of social capital-the role of nonmarket relations in aiding or impeding investments in human skills-is stressed. The article concludes with a discussion of the legitimacy of race-based remedies for the problem of exclusion. The concept of social exclusion has gained wide currency in recent years. But is this concept useful in studying racial and ethnic inequality? Social divisions between racial and ethnic groups-along economic, cultural, and political lines-are a central feature of public life throughout the world. The problem spans geographic and political boundaries and reflects universal social dynamics. Accordingly, much can be learned from comparing such tensions across national boundaries. Inequality and conflict between groups entail not just economic but also,

www.sagepublications.com (1) Sustainable development is a very simple idea. It is about ensuring a better quality of life for everyone, now and for generations to come... To achieve this, sustainable development is concerned with achieving economic growth, in the form of higher living standards, while protecting and where possible enhancing the environment... Building sustainable communities involves considering how to encourage employment, decent housing, good health, and access to services and recreation, in ways which make good use of natural resources, protect the environment, promote social cohesion, and contribute to local, regional and national prosperity. (Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions [DETR], 1998: 11) (2) [T]he principle of sustainable development... means living on the earth’s income rather than eroding its capital. It means keeping the consumption of renewable natural resources within the limits of their replenishment. It means handing down to successive generations not only man-made wealth (such as

At what level is new value created, or, put differently, what is the locus of knowledge? While knowledge and capabilities-based researchers argue that the locus of new value and knowledge lies at the firm level, we challenge this conceptualization and theoretically build toward more individualist foundations. We explicate the underlying philosophical assumptions of extant knowledge and capabilities-based work and discuss attributional problems. Nested (individual-level, a priori) heterogeneity may provide a better explanation of collective heterogeneity. There is really no need for the firm to be the fundamental unit of organization in invention; there is plenty of reason to suppose that individual talents count for a good deal more than the firm as an organization (Arrow, 1962: 624). The knowledge and capabilities-based views (KBV) in strategy have largely extended resource-based reasoning by suggesting that knowledge is the primary resource underlying new value creation, heterogeneity, and competitive advantage (Barney, 1991; Grant, 1996; Kogut & Zander, 1992). However, despite the recent proliferation of research into knowledge-based arguments, a number of fundamental constructs and questions have yet to be clearly defined and explored (e.g., see Kaplan, Schenkel, von Krogh, & Weber, 2001, for a recent overview). A critical, implicit debate underlying much knowledge and capabilities-based work is whether the individual or the collective is the source of new

This paper examines the experience of a group of designers attempting to implement pedagogical flexibility in the design of the CANDLE system. It sketches out how flexibility is emerging as a new design criterion, but warns that the implementation of such flexibility is fraught with conflicts. After foregrounding the myth of pedagogical neutrality in system design, it examines CANDLE’s decision to build a system around a pan-pedagogical framework and the problems inherent in such an undertaking. In particular it reviews issues such as the operationalisation of pedagogical theory, epistemological conflicts in the use of static ontologies for domain representation, metadata, meaning and communities of practice, access rights and granularity. It concludes by calling for educational systems designers to consider pedagogy in all its complexity in the process of design and development. 1

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Research in information systems, like other social sciences, has been criticised for its lack of rigour, deficiencies in the techniques used for evidence collection, the lack of generalisability of results and the poverty of theory development. This paper clarifies some of the key philosophical and methodological issues concerning the validity of information systems research. Issues relating to evidence collection, theory development and theory testing are addressed in turn. In terms of evidence collection, particular attention is paid to the treatment of human participants. At the theory development stage, the causal relationships constituted by organisational activity, and the role of knowledge in their construction, are considered. The analysis of theory testing questions the conventional separation of theory development and appraisal and argues that a sharp distinction between them it is not always constructive. The key issues identified are separated into ontological, epistemological and methodological considerations and then reformulated to provide a set of `requirements' for IS research methodology. Having developed a clear statement of key philosophical and methodological issues, the tradition of dialectics is drawn upon to develop an integrated approach to research into human and social phenomena, and for exploiting the results to make robust generalisations. The development of dialectical research presented in this paper addresses evidence collection and generalisation in some detail, with particular attention paid to the distinction between studying human participants as objects and as subjects. An outline of initial work towards developing a method to facilitate theory development is also provided.

The present paper proposes the artifact as theory perspective which draws together models of scientific practice and design behaviour and in so doing, offers the view of any information technology system as a conjecture on the part of the design team of human and organizational requirements to be met. By adopting this perspective, information system design can be seen as an ill-structured problem best tackled by user-centered theories and methods. The present paper will outline this perspective, emphasizing the need for convergence of views at the outset of design, and demonstrate the advantages it offers to both the theory and practice of technology design and the field of information science.