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this article. Preparation of this article was supported by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada Grant A7459. I am grateful to Fred Stroop and to the late Zelma Stroop for their assistance with the biographical information. ! also thank Walter Schneider, Jonathan Schooler, and Judith Shedden for their comments on a previous version

A number of experiments have shown that the magnitude of the associative priming effect increases substantially when there is a high proportion of associatively related pairs in the list when the stimulus-onset asynchrony (SOA) between prime and target is long (more than 400 ms). In the present series of experiments we manipulated the proportion of associatively related pairs when the SOA was very brief (less than 200 ms). If processing of a target word is facilitated automatically by the prior presentation of a related prime, the occurrence of priming should be unaffected by the proportion of related pairs in the list. Experiment 1 showed a robust relatedness proportion effect obtained in a double lexical decision task. Experiments 2-4 used the masked priming technique at several very short SOAs (66, 116, and 166 ms) in lexical decision and naming. The results showed a reliable associative priming effect in the two tasks, which did not differ as a function of the proportion of related pairs. Finally, Experiment 5 used unmasked primes at a 83-ms SOA in which the primes remained in view after the target presentation. As in Experiments 2-4, the associative effect was not modulated by the proportion of associatively related pairs. The implications of these results are discussed.

Previous research has identified the prefrontal cortex (PFC) as a brain region that is critical for cognitive control. Currently, theorists remain divided about whether to view the PFC as primarily a coordinative, mnemonic, or inhibitory structure. A theory is presented that attempts to resolve some of the apparent conflicts between the predominant views on PFC control functions. In this theory, PFC is proposed to actively maintain representations of context information. These maintained representations provide a mechanism of control by serving as a top-down bias on the local competitive interactions that occur during processing. As such, it is suggested that PFC performs both mnemonic and inhibitory functions in the service of control, and that each is preferentially observable under different task situations. A series of behavioral, computational, and neuroimaging studies are presented that demonstrates how this theory can account for a wide range of data associated with performance ...

: A basic but neglected question regarding cognitive control is how control processes might detect situations calling for their mobilization. One interesting possibility is that this might be accomplished in part through monitoring for conflicts in information processing. An initial motivation for this hypothesis is provided by theories portraying the prevention of conflict as a basic function of cognitive control. More importantly, the actual occurrence of conflict monitoring is supported by data from cognitive neuroscience, concerning the responsivity of the anterior cingulate cortex. In addition to a wide range of evidence indicating the relevance of this cortical area to cognitive control, recent brain activation studies suggest that the area may respond selectively to the occurrence of conflict. In the present report, we discuss two computational modeling studies that together serve to articulate the conflict monitoring hypothesis and examine its implications. The first of these ...

at which name responses to the sensory representations emerge" (Dyer, 1973, p. 118). Two years later, the response competition account became entrenched when, in setting out their views on automaticity, Posner and Snyder (1975, p. 57) said that "the usual Stroop effect arises because of response competition between vocal responses to the printed word and the ink color... color naming and reading go on in parallel and without interference until close to the output." Under such a response competition view, it would seem reasonable that more potential responses ought to give rise to more competition, and hence to more interference. To This reseamh was supported by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada Grant A7459. We are grateful to Douglas Bors and Marilyn Smith for their comments on the initial drat, and to Tony Greenwald and Geoffrey Loftus, as well as an anonymous reviewer, for their helpful reviews and advice. Correspondence should be addressed to C. M. MacLe

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Phonological priming between bisyllabic (CV.CVC) spoken items was examined using both behavioral (reaction times, RTs) and electrophysiological (event-related potentials, ERPs) measures. Word and pseudoword targets were preceded by pseudoword primes. Different types of final phonological overlap between prime and target were compared. Critical pairs shared the last syllable, the rime or the coda, while unrelated pairs were used as controls. Participants performed a target shadowing task in Experiment 1 and a delayed lexical decision task in Experiment 2. RTs were measured in the first experiment and ERPs were recorded in the second experiment. The RT experiment was carried out under two presentation conditions. In Condition 1 both primes and targets were presented auditorily, while in Condition 2 the primes were presented visually and the targets auditorily. Priming effects were found in the unimodal condition only. RTs were fastest for syllable overlap, intermediate for rime overlap, and slowest for coda overlap and controls that did not differ from one another. ERPs were recorded under unimodal auditory presentation. ERP results showed that the amplitude of the auditory N400 component was smallest for syllable overlap, intermediate for rime overlap, and largest for coda overlap and controls that did not differ from one another. In both experiments, the priming effects were larger for word than for pseudoword targets. These results are best explained by the combined influences of nonlexical and lexical processes, and a comparison of the reported effects with those found in monosyllables suggests the involvement of rime and syllable representations. &

Past studies have shown that nonwords homophonic to words can produce phonological priming (klip -- CLIP), even when the primes are presented in a masked fashion (Ferrand & Grainger, 1992). This suggests that phonological codes are automatically activated and used in written word recognition. Here, we raise the possibility that in these experiments, subjects might have occasionally been aware of the primes, and that prime awareness is a necessary condition for phonological priming to arise. Across a large range of prime duration (43ms to 100ms), and a total of 238 subjects, we found phonological priming to be restricted to subjects who were consciously aware of the prime, whatever the prime duration. In contrast, we uncovered a small but statistically reliable nonword repetition priming effect, which was not dependant on prime awareness, and increased as a function of prime duration. We discuss these findings in terms of current models of written word recognition and general issues regarding the distinction between automatic and strategic processes.

Emotional states might selectively modulate components of cognitive control. To test this hypothesis, 152 undergraduates (equal numbers male and female) were randomly assigned to watch short videos intended to induce emotional states (approach, neutral, withdrawal). Each video was followed by a computerized 2-back working memory task (spatial or verbal, equated for difficulty and appearance). Spatial 2-back performance was enhanced by a withdrawal state and impaired by an approach state; the opposite pattern held for verbal performance. The double dissociation held more strongly for participants who made more errors than average across conditions. The results suggest that approach-withdrawal states can have selective influences on components of cognitive control, possibly on a hemispheric basis. They support and extend several frameworks for conceptualizing emotion-cognition interactions. Emotional modulation 3 Emotional Modulation of Cognitive Control: Approach-Withdrawal States Dou...