This paper is concerned not with space and spatial relations as objective entities of the world, but rather with human experience and perception of phenomena and relations in space. The goal arising from this concern is to identify models of space that can be used both in cognitive science and in the design and implementation of geographic information systems (GISs). Experiential models of the world are based on sensorimotor and visual experiences with environments, and form in individual minds as the associated bodies and senses experience their worlds. Formal models consist of axioms expressed in a formal language, together with mathematical rules to infer conclusions from them. The paper reviews both kinds of models, viewing them each as abstractions of the same 'real world.' The review of experiential models is grounded in recent developments in cognitive science, expounded by Rosch, Johnson, Talmy, and especially Lakoff. Among other things, these models suggest that perception and...

This dissertation presents a model of the knowledge a person has about the spatial structure of a large-scale environment: the "cognitive map." The functions of the cognitive map are to assimilate new information about the environment, to represent the current position, and to answer route-finding and relative-position problems. This model (called the TOUR model) analyzes the cognitive map in terms of symbolic descriptions of the environment and operations on those descriptions. Knowledge about a particular environment is represented in terms of route descriptions, a topological network of paths and places, multiple frames of reference for relative positions, dividing boundaries, and a structure of containing regions. The current position is described by the "You Are Here" pointer, which acts as a working memory and a focus of attention. Operations on the cognitive map are performed by inference rules which act to transfer information among different descriptions and the "You Are Here"...

During locomotion, mammals update their position with respect to a fixed point of reference, such as their point of departure, by processing inertial cues, proprioceptive feedback and stored motor commands generated during locomotion. This so-called path integration system (dead reckoning) allows the animal to return to its home, or to a familiar feeding place, even when external cues are absent or novel. However, without the use of external cues, the path integration process leads to rapid accumulation of errors involving both the direction and distance of the goal.

ABSTRACT: Cognitive map-design research has the goal of understanding human cognition in order to improve the design and use of maps. As a systematic sub-discipline of cartography, cognitive mapdesign research is a phenomenon of the twentieth century, specifically the latter half. Robinson’s The Look of Maps, published in 1952, played a seminal role in the genesis of cognitive map-design research in several countries, but it had interesting precursors. Empirical work that followed from The Look of Maps included psychophysical studies of graduated circles and studies of eye movements during map reading. Theoretical work that followed included a variety of cognitive theories but especially the development of the communication model as a comprehensive framework for scientific cartography. I chart the changing fortunes of cognitive map-design research after The Look of Maps and offer explanations for these changes. I also consider the legacy of cognitive map-design research—ways in which it has or has not mattered. I conclude with a list of questions suggested, but not decisively answered, by this exploratory essay.

By having subjects drive a virtual taxicab through a computer-rendered town, we examined how landmark and layout information interact during spatial navigation. Subject-drivers searched for passengers, and then attempted to take the most efficient route to the requested destinations (one of several target stores). Experiment 1 demonstrated that subjects rapidly learn to find direct paths from random pickup locations to target stores. Experiment 2 varied the degree to which landmark and layout cues were preserved across two successively learned towns. When spatial layout was preserved, transfer was low if only target stores were altered, and high if both target stores and surrounding buildings were altered, even though in the latter case all local views were changed. This suggests that subjects can rapidly acquire a survey representation based on the spatial layout of the town and independent of local views, but that subjects will rely on local views when present, and are harmed when associations between previously learned landmarks are disrupted. We propose that spatial navigation reflects a hierarchical system in which either layout or landmark information is sufficient for orienting and wayfinding; however, when these types of cues conflict, landmarks are preferentially used. The cities, neighborhoods, and buildings in which we live are rich in spatial structure, and the ability to orient within that structure is crucial for effective navigation. The opportunity to move through an environment allows people to integrate various routes into a cognitive map—a mental model of objects ’ spatial configuration that permits navigation along optimal paths between arbitrary pairs of points (Tolman, 1948). Previous research has pointed to environmental landmarks (salient objects) and environmental layout (geometrical and topological properties of spaces, also known as survey knowledge) as distinct means

Humans, animals and robots are physically existing agents situated in the real world. Their common ability to extract, store and use spatial information is crucial for their successful operation. On the other hand, their idiosyncracies seem to be reflected on their spatial knowledge. The paper attempts a discussion around the cognitive map, a term coined to describe exactly the body of spatial knowledge held by an agent. The topic is discussed at both a global and an individual level, occasionally interleaved with the author's personal opinions. Keywords: Spatial Knowledge, Spatial Cognition, Cognitive Maps. 1 Introduction Humans, animals and robots are physically existing agents situated in the real world. The ability to perceive properties of that space and the ability of locomotion in the very same space is something common to all of them. It seems that both abilities are crucial to their successful operation for a number 1 of reasons, for example, survivability. However, their ...

To my parents ii Table of Contents Table of Contents iii Abstract xv Acknowledgements xvii

ABSTRACT. Global politics and local politics, though interlinked today by processes of globalization, remain separated by the phenomenon of distance. Sheer physical distance, with its associated geography, assumes mainly a causal importance. It determines the way a policy is implemented practically, and can affect the outcome of policy. Planning and strategizing, especially in the sphere of foreign policy, are shaped by three other “distances ” as well, each with a distinctive logic. The first is gravitational distance, according to which political and other power is thought to “decay ” with increasing distance, although the “mass, ” or size, of countries can modify this assumed attenuation of influence. The second is topological distance, according to which any two countries may seem more remote from one another if there are other countries located in between them, the number and arrangement of these intervening country-spaces—the configuration of the political map—being the key variable. The third is attributional distance, according to which countries

By having subjects drive a virtual taxicab through a computer-rendered town, we examined how landmark and layout information interact during spatial navigation. The subject-drivers searched for passengers and attempted to find the most e#cient route to their requested destinations (one of several target stores). Experiment 1 demonstrated that subjects rapidly learn to find direct paths from random pickup locations to target stores.

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