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Multiple Processes in Prospective Memory Retrieval: Factors Determining Monitoring versus Spontaneous Retrieval
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
, 2005
"... Theoretically, prospective memory retrieval can be accomplished either by controlled monitoring of the environment for a target event or by a more reflexive process that spontaneously responds to the presence of a target event. These views were evaluated in Experiments 1–4 by examining whether perfo ..."
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Cited by 45 (7 self)
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Theoretically, prospective memory retrieval can be accomplished either by controlled monitoring of the environment for a target event or by a more reflexive process that spontaneously responds to the presence of a target event. These views were evaluated in Experiments 1–4 by examining whether performing a prospective memory task produced costs on the speed of performing the ongoing task. In Experiment 5, the authors directly tested for the existence of spontaneous retrieval. The results supported the multi-process theory (M. A. McDaniel & G. O. Einstein, 2000) predictions that (a) spontaneous retrieval can occur and can support good prospective memory and (b) depending on task demands and individual differences, people rely to different degrees on monitoring versus spontaneous retrieval for prospective remembering.
On the relationship between effort toward an ongoing task and cue detection in event-based prospective memory
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
, 2005
"... In recent theories of event-based prospective memory, researchers have debated what degree of resources are necessary to identify a cue as related to a previously established intention. In order to simulate natural variations in attention, the authors manipulated effort toward an ongoing cognitive t ..."
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Cited by 20 (4 self)
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In recent theories of event-based prospective memory, researchers have debated what degree of resources are necessary to identify a cue as related to a previously established intention. In order to simulate natural variations in attention, the authors manipulated effort toward an ongoing cognitive task in which intention-related cues were embedded in 3 experiments. High effort toward the ongoing task resulted in decreased prospective memory only when the cognitive processing required to identify the cue was similar to the cognitive processing required to complete the ongoing activity. When the required processing was different for the 2 tasks, cue detection was not affected by manipulated effort, despite there being an overall cost to decision latencies in the ongoing tasks from possessing the intention. Resource allocation policies and factors that affect them are proposed to account for ongoing vs. prospective memory task performance. When an activity cannot be carried out immediately, people must establish an intention in memory to perform it at a later time. Such memories are labeled prospective memories to denote their forward-looking nature and to distinguish them from retrospective memories for events that transpired in one’s personal past. One
Changing Behavior by Memory Aids: A Social Psychological Model of Prospective Memory and Habit Development Tested with Dynamic Field Data
- Psychological Review
, 2009
"... This article presents a social psychological model of prospective memory and habit development. The model is based on relevant research literature, and its dynamics were investigated by computer simula-tions. Time-series data from a behavior-change campaign in Cuba were used for calibration and vali ..."
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Cited by 14 (2 self)
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This article presents a social psychological model of prospective memory and habit development. The model is based on relevant research literature, and its dynamics were investigated by computer simula-tions. Time-series data from a behavior-change campaign in Cuba were used for calibration and validation of the model. The model scored well in several system-analytical tests, including the replication of the data and the forecast of later developments based on earlier data. Additionally, the calibrated parameter values indicate that the accessibilities of intentions decay at the same rate as retrospective memories. However, the accessibilities may stay high due to a reminder, the effectiveness of which depends on a person’s commitment to performing the behavior. Furthermore, the effect of the reminder decays over time. This decay is much slower than the development of habits, which, after about a month, were nearly fully developed if the person had executed the behavior sufficiently often. Finally, over time, habits were shown to replace the reminding effect of the external memory aid. This article points to a new understanding of the role of habits in supporting the performance of repeated behaviors through remembering.
Control of Cost in Prospective Memory: Evidence for Spontaneous Retrieval Processes
"... To examine the processes that support prospective remembering, previous research has often examined whether the presence of a prospective memory task slows overall responding on an ongoing task. Although slowed task performance suggests that monitoring is present, this method does not clearly establ ..."
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Cited by 7 (3 self)
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To examine the processes that support prospective remembering, previous research has often examined whether the presence of a prospective memory task slows overall responding on an ongoing task. Although slowed task performance suggests that monitoring is present, this method does not clearly establish whether monitoring is functionally related to prospective memory performance. According to the multiprocess theory (McDaniel & Einstein, 2000), monitoring should be necessary to prospective memory performance with nonfocal cues but not with focal cues. To test this hypothesis, we varied monitoring by presenting items that were related (or unrelated) to the prospective memory task proximal to target events. Notably, whereas monitoring proximal to target events led to a large increase in nonfocal prospective memory performance, focal prospective remembering was high in the absence of monitoring, and monitoring in this condition provided no additional benefits. These results suggest that when monitoring is absent, spontaneous retrieval processes can support focal prospective remembering.
Focal/nonfocal cue effects in prospective memory: monitoring difficulty or different retrieval processes
, 2010
"... We investigated whether focal/nonfocal effects (e.g., Einstein et al., 2005) in prospective memory (PM) are explained by cue differences in monitoring difficulty. In Experiment 1, we show that syllable cues (used in Einstein et al., 2005) are more difficult to monitor for than are word cues; however ..."
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We investigated whether focal/nonfocal effects (e.g., Einstein et al., 2005) in prospective memory (PM) are explained by cue differences in monitoring difficulty. In Experiment 1, we show that syllable cues (used in Einstein et al., 2005) are more difficult to monitor for than are word cues; however, initial-letter cues (in words) are similar in monitoring difficulty to word cues (Experiments 2a and 2b). Accordingly, in Experiments 3 and 4, we designated either an initial letter or a particular word as a PM cue in the context of a lexical decision task, a task that presumably directs attention to focal processing of words but not initial letters. We found that the nonfocal condition was more likely than the focal condition to produce costs to the lexical decision task (task interference). Furthermore, when task interference was minimal or absent, focal PM performance remained relatively high, whereas nonfocal PM performance was near floor (Experiment 4). Collectively, these results suggest that qualitatively different retrieval processes can support prospective remembering for focal versus nonfocal cues.
Remembrance of things future: Prospective memory in laboratory, workplace, and everyday settings
- NASA Ames Research Center
, 2010
"... Prospective memory involves remembering—and sometimes forgetting—to perform tasks that must be deferred. This chapter summarizes and provides a perspective on research and theory in this new and rapidly growing field. I explore the limits of existing experimental paradigms, which fail to capture som ..."
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Cited by 5 (1 self)
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Prospective memory involves remembering—and sometimes forgetting—to perform tasks that must be deferred. This chapter summarizes and provides a perspective on research and theory in this new and rapidly growing field. I explore the limits of existing experimental paradigms, which fail to capture some critical aspects of performance outside of laboratory settings, and review the relatively few studies in workplace and everyday settings. I suggest countermeasures to reduce vulnerability to forgetting to perform deferred tasks, identify roles for human factors practitioners, and propose a research agenda that would extend our understanding of prospective memory performance. Remembrance of Things Future 3
Effects of aging and working memory demands on prospective memory
- Psychophysiology
, 2005
"... The current study used event-related brain potentials (ERPs) to examine the effects of aging, increasing the working memory demands of the ongoing activity, and a prospective memory load on the neural correlates of prospective remembering and target recognition. The behavioral data revealed that the ..."
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Cited by 4 (1 self)
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The current study used event-related brain potentials (ERPs) to examine the effects of aging, increasing the working memory demands of the ongoing activity, and a prospective memory load on the neural correlates of prospective remembering and target recognition. The behavioral data revealed that the success of prospectivememory was sensitive to working memory load in younger, but not older, adults and that a prospective memory load had a greater effect on the performance of older adults than that of younger adults. The ERP data revealed age-related differences in the neural correlates of the detection of prospective cues, post-retrieval processes that support prospective memory, and target recognition. Our results support the hypothesis that there are age-related differences in the ability to recruit preparatory attentional processes that underlie prospective memory, and demonstrate that younger and older adults may recruit somewhat different neural generators to support prospective memory and working memory. Descriptors: ERPs, Aging, Prospective memory, Working memory, Partial Least Squares analysis Over the course of an average day we are frequently required to remember to do things in the future. In some instances, infor-mation related to realizing an intention may be actively main-tained for several seconds until it is appropriate to perform an
Spontaneous retrieval in prospective memory
- In
, 2007
"... O ur chapter, like others in this volume, focuses on episodic memory. Otherchapters have approached episodic memory as a process or system topreserve an individual’s mental record of his or her past. Here we take a broader view that episodic memory also allows people to mentally place themselves for ..."
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Cited by 2 (2 self)
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O ur chapter, like others in this volume, focuses on episodic memory. Otherchapters have approached episodic memory as a process or system topreserve an individual’s mental record of his or her past. Here we take a broader view that episodic memory also allows people to mentally place themselves forward in time. Tulving (2004) has termed this process proscopic chronesthesia. Proscopic chronesthesia, likely unique to humans, supports for-ward-looking activities, the anticipation of what we will be doing in the near and long term, what we are likely to feel in anticipated events, what we hope to accomplish, and the planning activities that accompany this future oriented behavior. Closely aligned with such mental time-travel is prospective memory, which is the focus of the present chapter. Prospective memory is memory for activities that we intend to perform in the future. More specifically, prospective memory refers to remembering to perform an intended action at an appropriate moment in the future. With even minimal thought, it is clear that everyday living is replete with prospective memory tasks. We need to remember to give colleagues messages, to pack a desired item in our work bag, to remember to pick up some grocery item on the way home from work, and to remember to attend scheduled appointments. For one of us, the last prospective memory challenge is especially salient because recently, at the time that a faculty meeting was scheduled, MAM forgot about the meeting (his colleagues were much amused that a prospective memory researcher would forget the meeting). Prospective memory is also needed for handling health-related needs such as remembering to exercise, monitor various bodily indices like blood pressure or blood-sugar levels, and to take medication. The latter is increasingly frequent as the Center for Disease Control and Prevention reports that 44 % of Americans
The influence of negative emotions on prospective memory: A review and new data
- International Journal of Computational Cognition
, 2006
"... Abstract — The persuasive cognitive ability to encode, store, and execute intended actions, such as remembering to keep appointments or to pick up the kids from school after work, is termed prospective memory. In the present paper, we provide a review over the currently available studies that were i ..."
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Cited by 1 (0 self)
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Abstract — The persuasive cognitive ability to encode, store, and execute intended actions, such as remembering to keep appointments or to pick up the kids from school after work, is termed prospective memory. In the present paper, we provide a review over the currently available studies that were interested in how the ability to prospectively remember is subject to emotional influences, such as fluctuations in mood, enduring (negative) emotional states, or clinically relevant affective disorders. The general finding is that negative emotional states and inner-states of anxiety or depression seem to interfere with the ability to exe-cute intended actions, although the direction of this relationship seems to reverse under certain circumstances. In addition, we present novel data from a recent study that further investigated how specific negative emotions (i.e., anxiety and depression) are correlated with performance in different prospective memory tasks. Additionally, the multifaceted pattern of findings on how emotions might influence the execution of different types of in-tended actions in the laboratory and in everyday life is discussed. Finally, we provide some avenues for future research investigating the connection between cognition and emotion within the realm of
The development of prospective memory in children: An executive framework
"... A B S T R A C T Prospective memory (PM), the ability to remember to carry out one's intentions in the future, is critical for children's daily functioning and their ability to become independent from caregivers. This review assesses the current state of research on children's prospec ..."
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A B S T R A C T Prospective memory (PM), the ability to remember to carry out one's intentions in the future, is critical for children's daily functioning and their ability to become independent from caregivers. This review assesses the current state of research on children's prospective memory. Using an executive functioning framework the literature can be organized into studies examining four factors that influence PM. We discuss studies that have manipulated the nature of the intention, the content or length of the retention interval, the nature of the ongoing task, and the nature of the PM cue. Further, we propose a model that attempts to account for the development of PM across childhood based on advances in executive control. Finally, we suggest promising future directions for research.
