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...asurements and the maps themselves. Mapmatching techniques have been developed to improve the interpretation of GPS location data. Naive map-matching finds the nearest road segment as a correct match =-=[20]-=-. Although it is simple and fast, it is sensitive to the spatial road network and often fails in practice. Figure 3(top-left) shows one example of GPS data errors where the points depart from the stre...

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...data preprocessing in our work. It refers to the process of mapping the GPS points to the road segments to recover a complete path of a trajectory. Quddus makes a survey of map matching algorithms in =-=[10]-=-, including geometric, topological, probabilistic, and other advanced algorithms. He also discusses the performances and limitations of them. Lou et al. [8] propose a new algorithm for low-sampling-ra...

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...pological, probabilistic and advanced. The earliest geometric MM (gMM)salgorithms, developed in the 1990s, used geometric information, on the shape of the curve ofsthe road segment (Kim et al., 1996; =-=Quddus et al., 2007-=-; White et al., 2000). These gMMsalgorithms are the simplest and fastest to implement as they require very little information,sbut they perform poorly especially when matching at junctions, complex ro...

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...eometrical analysis [12], belief function theory [13], Extended Kalman Filter [14] and Hidden Markov Model (HMM) [11], [15], [16]. The strengths and limitations of these methods have been reviewed in =-=[9]-=-. In particular, HMM-based algorithms and their variants [10], [17] have been adopted for their abilities to concurrently evaluate multiple hypotheses of the actual mapping in order to find the eventu...

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...nal information is known. Related Work In many applications, map matching is an online problem, that is, location measurements have to be aligned with the road map as soon as they are taken (see e.g. =-=[11]-=- for more on this version of the problem). In contrast, here we focus on offline map Copyright © 2011 by SIAM Unauthorized reproduction is prohibited. 84matching, that is, from a sequence of location...

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...hort range radio communication signals, such as WLAN or Bluetooth signals have been used to obtain indoor position estimates [5, 6, 7]. The use of map information is common practice in car navigation =-=[8]-=-, and similar principles have also been proposed for indoor positioning [9]. All the mentioned approaches for indoor positioning have their strengths and weaknesses, and often a weakness of one system...

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...ansverse Mercator (UTM) North/East Cartesian ones. The vehicle is positioned on a digital map using map-matching algorithms that ensure robust solutions even under adverse environmental circumstances =-=[47,48]-=-. Phase 3: Positioning Obstacles on the Digital Map Finally, the obstacles must be located on the digital map so that the system can analyze which pose a risk as well as evaluating their movement over...

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...om a geometric point of view, it is related to the problem of matching a sequence of vehicle position measurements to the road segments most probably travelled (known as ‘map matching’ in literature) =-=[19]-=-. Problems that make gaze map matching challenging include hardware inaccuracy, bad calibration, the permanent unintentional movements of the eye, and ambiguity resolution when a gaze point is in the ...

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...ION Map-Matching (MM), using GNSS positioning and navigable maps, is a data association problem which consists in selecting the most likely road that corresponds to the current position of the mobile =-=[17]-=-. Unfortunately, because of large estimation errors, MM often has several solutions, i.e. several segments are declared candidates with good confidence. These segments can belong to the same road or t...